Research Update:Ginger and Its Constituents.Ginger Action and Uses.Ginger Extract.Gingerols.CAS.NO:1391-73-7.Molecular Formula:C17 H32O4.5-Hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxycyclohexyl)decan-3-one,58253-27-3,6.Gingerol.Printable Version.MDidea Extracts Professional.

Ginger Extract.Gingerols.CAS.NO:1391-73-7.Molecular Formula:C17 H32O4.5-Hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxycyclohexyl)decan-3-one,58253-27-3,6.Gingerol photo picture image img

Phytochemical info of Ginger Extract:

Product Name:
Synonym:
Definition:Ginger Extract are majorly composed of
Chemical information disclosed as following table:

Research Update:Ginger and Its Constituents.

The effect of the volatile oil from ginger rhizomes (Zingiber officinale), its fractions and isolated compounds on the 5-HT3 receptor complex and the serotoninergic system of the rat ileum.:Planta Med. 2007 Apr;73(4):355-62.Riyazi A, Hensel A, Bauer K, Geissler N, Schaaf S, Verspohl EJ.Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, University of Muenster, Germany.

A contribution of the volatile oil from ginger rhizomes (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) on inhabiting the 5-HT3 receptor complex had been shown. In the present study a possible interaction of some compounds of the volatile oil with the 5-HT3 receptor system expressed in N1E-115 cells and with the serotoninergic system of the rat ileum was investigated. The volatile oil was obtained by steam distillation and fractionated using a silica gel column resulting in five fractions. Compounds of the fractions were identified by GC-MS. The influence of the volatile oil, its fractions and pure components on serotonin-induced [14C]guanidinium influx into N1E-115 cells was measured indicating the inhibitory interaction with the 5-HT3 receptor channel system. Most potent inhibitors of cation influx were the volatile oil, fraction 4, beta-pinene, terpinolene, alpha-copaene and alpha-phellandrene. The volatile oil and fractions 1 and 4 were not able to significantly influence either serotonin (10 microM)-induced maximum contraction of the rat ileum or the second phase of the biphasic contraction 2.5 min after serotonin addition. However, beta-pinene, terpinolene and alpha-phellandrene reduced both contractions. In conclusion, the volatile oil and distinct compounds such as terpinolene, beta-pinene and alpha-phellandrene interact with 5-HT3 receptor channel system and possess an antispasmodic effect at the rat ileum.

Alzheimer's disease drug discovery from herbs: neuroprotectivity from beta-amyloid (1-42) insult.:J Altern Complement Med. 2007 Apr;13(3):333-40.Kim DS, Kim JY, Han YS.CurXceL Corporation, The Business and Technology Center, West Lafayette, IN 47906, USA.curxcel@gmail.com

OBJECTIVE: To comparatively evaluate selected herbs for their ability to protect neuronal cells from direct betaA(1-42) insult. DESIGN: Twenty-seven (27) herbs were selected, extracted with aqueous methanol (90%) and chloroform, and the extracts were evaluated for their ability to protect PC12 rat pheochromocytoma and primary neuronal cells from betaA(1-42) insult using both 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide reduction assay and lactate dehydrogenase efflux assay. RESULTS: Curcuma aromatia (ul-keum) and Zingiber officinale (ginger) extracts effectively protected cells from betaA(1-42) insult, followed by Ginkgo biloba (ginkgo), Polygonatum sp. (King Solomon's seal), Cinnamum cassia (Chinese cinnamon), Rheum coreanum (Korean rhubarb), Gastrodia elata (gastrodia), and Scutellaria baicalensis (skullcap). Several extracts showed cytotoxicity at high concentration (approximately 150 microg/mL), whereas other extracts did not at all protect cells from betaA(1-42) insult. CONCLUSION: Selective herbs may be potentially important resources to discover drug candidates against the onset of Alzheimer's disease.

The safety and efficacy of a dietary herbal supplement and gallic acid for weight loss.:J Med Food. 2007 Mar;10(1):184-8.Roberts AT, Martin CK, Liu Z, Amen RJ, Woltering EA, Rood JC, Caruso MK, Yu Y, Xie H, Greenway FL.Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70808, USA.

The objective of this study was to test the safety and efficacy of NT, a dietary herbal supplement made from rhubarb, ginger, astragulus, red sage, and turmeric, combined with gallic acid (GA) to reduce food intake and cause weight loss. A total of 105 healthy subjects, 18-60 years old with a body mass index of 25-35 kg/m(2) and on no chronic medication, were randomized to a 300 mg/1.2 g NT-GA combination, a 600 mg/2.4 g NT-GA combination, or placebo in three divided doses daily for 24 weeks. Food intake was measured at baseline and 2 weeks, and safety parameters were followed regularly. Pharmacokinetic studies of a 200 mg/800 g NT-GA combination and 800 mg GA alone were performed with and without food. There was no dose-related weight loss or reduction in food intake at the 8-week analysis, and the study was terminated early. Pharmacokinetic studies showed plasma levels of GA did not increase above 10 microM and were not dose-related. The NT-GA at all concentrations was well tolerated, but was ineffective in causing weight loss or in suppressing food intake. Pharmacokinetics suggested that GA plasma levels were limited by oral absorption, and may be the reason for lack of efficacy.

[6]-Gingerol prevents UVB-induced ROS production and COX-2 expression in vitro and in vivo.:Free Radic Res. 2007 May;41(5):603-14.Kim JK, Kim Y, Na KM, Surh YJ, Kim TY. Department of Dermato-Immunology, College of Medicine, Catholic Research Institute of Medical Science, The Catholic University of Korea. Seoul, 137-701. South Korea.

[6]-Gingerol, a naturally occurring plant phenol, is one of the major components of fresh ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae) and has diverse pharmacologic effects. Here, we describe its novel anti-oxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory activities in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, pre-treatment with [6]-gingerol reduced UVB-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species levels, activation of caspase-3, -8, -9, and Fas expression. It also reduced UVB-induced expression and transactivation of COX-2. Translocation of NF-kappaB from cytosol to nucleus in HaCaT cells was inhibited by [6]-gingerol via suppression of IkappaBalpha phosphorylation (ser-32). Examination by EMSAs and immunohistochemistry showed that topical application of [6]-gingerol (30 muM) prior to UVB irradiation (5 kJ/m(2)) of hairless mice, also inhibited the induction of COX-2 mRNA and protein, as well as NF-kappaB translocation. These results suggest that [6]-gingerol could be an effective therapeutic agent providing protection against UVB-induced skin disorders.

Induction of Apoptosis by Ginger in HEp-2 Cell Line Is Mediated by Reactive Oxygen Species.:Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2007 May;100(5):302-7.Vijaya Padma V, Arul Diana Christie S, Ramkuma KM.Department of Biotechnology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae) is a commonly used medicinal herb throughout the world. Although some studies have demonstrated its antitumour activities on cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, the exact mechanism is not fully elucidated. Hence, the present study was designed to examine the in vitro cytotoxic activities of saline extract prepared from ginger extract on HEp-2 cell line. The cytotoxic effect of the drug was confirmed by 3-(4,5-dimethyl thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay and cell counting and estimation of protein, DNA and RNA. Meanwhile, propidium iodide staining and agarose gel electrophoresis were performed for determining the induction of apoptosis. In addition, superoxide radical generation, nitrite formation and glutathione studies show involvement of free radicals. The present results show that the extract exerts dose-dependent suppression of cell proliferation; the IC(50) value was found to be 900 microg/ml. At a dose of 250 microg/ml, marked morphological changes including cell shrinkage and condensation of chromosomes were observed. Agarose gel electrophoresis of DNA from HEp-2 cells treated with 250 microg/ml ginger powder for 24 hr showed marked DNA ladder pattern. The involvement of free radicals was confirmed by increased superoxide production, decreased nitrate formation and depletion of glutathione in ginger-treated cells. Further screening of active components using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses showed the presence of clavatol, geraniol and pinostrobin in the extract. The results of the present study suggest that ginger might be useful as a potential antitumour agent.

Evidence of effectiveness of herbal antiinflammatory drugs in the treatment of painful osteoarthritis and chronic low back pain.:Phytother Res. 2007 Apr 20;Chrubasik JE, Roufogalis BD, Chrubasik S.Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Freiburg im Breisgau, Albertstr. 9 79104 Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany.

Treatment with herbal medicines is very popular in Europe. In order to get information on the evidence of effectiveness of oral herbal medicines in the treatment of pain in the joints or lower back, OVID(MEDLINE), PUBMED and COCHRANE COLLABORATION LIBRARY were searched back to 1985 for systematic reviews. The level of evidence of effectiveness was defined as strong - at least two confirmatory studies demonstrating a clinical relevant effect, moderate - one confirmatory study with a clinical relevant effect and/or multiple exploratory studies of good quality; otherwise the evidence was insufficient or conflicting in the case of inconsistent findings.Fifteen systematic reviews were identified. The evidence of effectiveness was strong for a proprietary unsaponifiable avocado soybean fraction and Harpagophytum preparations containing >50 mg harpagoside in the daily dosage, moderate for ginger and a proprietary rose hip and seed powder, insufficient for Boswellia serrata gum resin and other herbal preparations and inconsistent for a proprietary willow bark extract.Further rigorous studies are required to confirm the usefulness of herbal medicines in the treatment of osteoarthritic complaints and chronic low back pain in order to enable acceptance of the herbal medicines into the treatment guidelines.

Inhibition of gastric H+, K+-ATPase and Helicobacter pylori growth by phenolic antioxidants of Zingiber officinale.:Mol Nutr Food Res. 2007 Mar;51(3):324-32.Siddaraju MN, Dharmesh SM.Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore 570-020, Karnataka, India.

Ulcer is a common global problem characterized by acute gastric irritability, bleeding, etc. due to either increased gastric cell proton potassium ATPase activity (PPA) or perturbation of mucosal defence. Helicobacter pylori has been identified as a major ulcerogen in addition to oxidative stress and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. In this paper, we report ginger-free phenolic (GRFP) and ginger hydrolysed phenolic (GRHP) fractions of ginger (Zingiber officinale) as potent inhibitors of PPA and H. pylori growth. GRFP and GRHP inhibited PPA at an IC(50) of 2.9 +/- 0.18 and 1.5 +/- 0.12 microg/mL, exhibiting six- to eight-fold better potency over lansoprazole. GRFP is constituted by syringic (38%), gallic (18%) and cinnamic (14%) acids and GRHP by cinnamic (48%), p-coumaric (34%) and caffeic (6%) acids as major phenolic acids. GRFP and GRHP further exhibited free radical scavenging (IC(50) 1.7 +/- 0.07 and 2.5 +/- 0.16), inhibition of lipid peroxidation (IC(50) 3.6 +/- 0.21 and 5.2 +/- 0.46), DNA protection (80% at 4 microg) and reducing power abilities (80-338 U/g) indicating strong antioxidative properties. GRFP and GRHP may thus be potential in-expensive multistep blockers against ulcer.

Liquid ginger extract: technology of production and quality evaluation.:Ceska Slov Farm. 2006 Nov;55(6):268-71.Masteikova R, Bernatoniene R, Savickas A, Chalupova Z, Bernatoniene J.Veterinarni a farmaceuticka univerzita Brno, Farmaceuticka fakulta, Ustav technologie leku. masteikovar@vfu.cz

The paper aimed to elaborate the technology of the production of a liquid ginger extract and to select and verify the methods of quality evaluation of the final preparation. The experiment revealed 70% ethanol as a suitable extraction agent. The optimal conditions for the development of an extract of good quality are established when the herbal drug is crushed to form particles passing through a sieve with a mesh size of 4000 microm, the extraction method is repercolation with the division of the charge of the drug in the relation 5:3:2, and the liquid flows from the percolator at a rate of 0.2ml/min/100 g of the drug. The presence of amino acids, saccharides, glycosides, reducing agents, phenolic substances, and alkaloids in the finished extract was demonstrated by means of colour or precipitation reactions. Thin-layer chromatography was employed to demonstrate gingerols and shogaols. Evaporation residue, ethanol concentration, and the amount of essential oils were determined quantitatively.

Characterization and identification of diarylheptanoids in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) using high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry.:Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom. 2007;21(4):509-18.Jiang H, Timmermann BN, Gang DR.Department of Plant Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.

In our continuing investigation of diarylheptanoids in Zingiberaceae plants using liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-MS/MS), 26 diarylheptanoids were identified from fresh ginger rhizome. Of the 26 compounds, 15 diarylheptanoids appear to be new compounds. In addition, the majority of these compounds (18) were acetylated, which is different from our investigation of diarylheptanoids from turmeric, another member of the Zingiberaceae, which did not possess any acetylated diarylheptanoids. In all, five distinct groups (homologous series) of diarylheptanoids were found in extracts from ginger rhizome. These groups were differentiated by structural differences on the heptane skeletons, whereas homologs within each group differed by substitution patterns on the aromatic rings. Diagnostic fragmentation behavior in (+)- and (-)ESI-MS/MS analyses for each group of homologs, as well as information regarding polarity obtained from retention time data, allowed us to classify compounds by group and identify them based on key structural features.

Cancer preventive properties of ginger: a brief review.:Food Chem Toxicol. 2007 May;45(5):683-90. Epub 2006 Nov 12.Shukla Y, Singh M.Environmental Carcinogenesis Division, Industrial Toxicology Research Centre, P.O. Box 80, M.G. Marg, Lucknow 226 001, Uttar Pradesh, India. yogeshwer_shukla@hotmail.com

Ginger, the rhizome of Zingiber officinalis, one of the most widely used species of the ginger family, is a common condiment for various foods and beverages. Ginger has a long history of medicinal use dating back 2500 years. Ginger has been traditionally used from time immemorial for varied human ailments in different parts of the globe, to aid digestion and treat stomach upset, diarrhoea, and nausea. Some pungent constituents present in ginger and other zingiberaceous plants have potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, and some of them exhibit cancer preventive activity in experimental carcinogenesis. The anticancer properties of ginger are attributed to the presence of certain pungent vallinoids, viz. [6]-gingerol and [6]-paradol, as well as some other constituents like shogaols, zingerone etc. A number of mechanisms that may be involved in the chemopreventive effects of ginger and its components have been reported from the laboratory studies in a wide range of experimental models.

Determination of 6-gingerol in ginger (Zingiber officinale) using high-performance thin-layer chromatography.:J Sep Sci. 2006 Oct;29(15):2292-5.Rai S, Mukherjee K, Mal M, Wahile A, Saha BP, Mukherjee PK.School of Natural Product Studies, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India.

A sensitive and accurate High-Performance TLC (HPTLC) method has been developed to determine the quantity of 6-gingerol in rhizomes of Zingiber officinale (family: Zingiberaceae), commonly known as ginger. Methanol extracts of rhizomes from three different sources were used for HPTLC, n-hexane, and diethyl ether (40:60 v/v) as the mobile phase. The Rf of 6-gingerol was found to be 0.40. The calibration plot was linear in the range of 250-1200 ng of 6-gingerol and the correlation coefficient of 0.9997 was indicative of good linear dependence of peak area on concentration. The mean quantity of 6-gingerol was found to be 60.44+/-2.53 mg/g of ginger extract. The method permits reliable quantification of 6-gingerol and good resolution and separation of 6-gingerol from other constituents of ginger. To study the accuracy and precision of the method, recovery studies were performed by the method of standard addition. Recovery values from 99.79 to 99.84% showed the excellent reliability and reproducibility of the method. The proposed HPTLC method for quantitative monitoring of 6-gingerol in ginger can be used for routine quality testing of ginger extracts.

Herbal medicine in womens' life cycle.:Harefuah. 2006 Oct;145(10):738-42, 782.Ben-Arye E, Oren A, Ben-Arie A.The Complementary and Traditional Medicine Unit, Department of Family Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel. eranben@netvision.net.il

Women use herbs and other traditional and complementary modalities to treat various ailments throughout their life circle. This article reviewed 19 randomized controlled trials, which studied efficacy and safety of various herbs in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), nausea and vomiting in the first trimester of pregnancy and menopausal hot flushes. Preliminary data support the efficacy of Chaste tree fruit (Vitex agnus) in the treatment of PMS, Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in the treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum and (Cimicifuga racemosa) in the treatment of menopausal hot flushes. Additional and more rigorous studies are warranted in order to support the efficacy and safety of these herbal remedies.

Ginger significantly decreased the oral bioavailability of cyclosporine in rats.:Am J Chin Med. 2006;34(5):845-55.

Ginger (roots of Zingiber officinale ROSCOE) is a popular spice and herbal medicine worldwide. Cyclosporine is clinically used as an important immunosupressant with narrow therapeutic index. This study attempted to investigate the effect of ginger juice on the pharmacokinetics of cyclosporine in rats. Rats were orally administered cyclosporine alone and in combination with ginger juice (5 ml/kg) concomitantly, as well as 2 hours after the ginger juice, respectively, in crossover designs. In addition, rats were intravenously administered cyclosporine with and without an oral dose of ginger juice (5 ml/kg). The blood samples were withdrawn via cardiopuncture at determined time points and cyclosporine concentrations were determined by a specific monoclonal fluorescence polarization immunoassay. The pharmacokinetic parameters of cyclosporine were calculated using a non-compartment model of WINNONLIN. The results indicated that concomitant intake of ginger significantly decreased C(max) and AUC(0-t) of oral cyclosporine by 70.9% and 63.1%, respectively. The intake of ginger 2 hours before cyclosporine significantly decreased C(max) and AUC(0-t) by 51.4% and 40.3%, respectively. In contrast, the pharmacokinetics of intravenous cyclosporine not altered by orally in combination with ginger juice. In conclusion, ginger significantly decreased the oral bioavailability of cyclosporine, and the interaction should occur at the absorption phase. Patients treated with cyclosporine should be discouraged from using ginger products to ensure the efficacy of cyclosporine.

Anti-allergic activity of some selected plants in the Zingiberaceae family.:J Ethnopharmacol. 2007 Feb 12;109(3):535-8. Epub 2006 Aug 15.Tewtrakul S, Subhadhirasakul S. Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat-Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand. supinyat@yahoo.com

Ethanolic and water extracts, together with volatile oils from the rhizomes of six selected Zingiberaceous plants, including Curcuma mangga, Kaempferia galanga, Kaempferia parviflora, Zingiber cassumunar, Zingiber officinale and Zingiber zerumbet were investigated for their anti-allergic activities using a RBL-2H3 cell line. The ethanolic (EtOH) extract of Kaempferia parviflora exhibited the most potent anti-allergic effect against antigen-induced beta-hexosaminidase release as a marker of degranulation in RBL-2H3 cells, with an IC(50) value of 10.9 microg/ml, followed by Zingiber cassumunar (EtOH, IC(50)=12.9 microg/ml) and Curcuma mangga (water, IC(50)=36.1 microg/ml). The volatile oils of these six plants were apparently inactive (IC(50)>100 microg/ml). The crude extracts were also tested on beta-hexosaminidase activity to clarify whether their effects were due to the inhibition of enzyme activity or of degranulation. As a result, the plant extracts were inactive against the enzyme activity of beta-hexosaminidase. These findings support the use in Thai traditional medicine of these selected Zingiberaceous plants, especially Kaempferia parviflora and Zingiber cassumunar, for treatment of allergy and allergic-related diseases.

The effect of extracts from ginger rhizome on inflammatory mediator production.:Phytomedicine. 2007 Feb;14(2-3):123-8. Epub 2006 May 18.Lantz RC, Chen GJ, Sarihan M, Solyom AM, Jolad SD, Timmermann BN.Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 245044, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA. lantz@email.arizona.edu

Compounds from rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, commonly called ginger, have been purported to have anti-inflammatory actions. We have used an in vitro test system to test the anti-inflammatory activity of compounds isolated from ginger rhizome. U937 cells were differentiated and exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Escherichia coli (1 microg/ml) in the presence or absence of organic extracts or standard compounds found in ginger (6-, 8-, 10-gingerol or 6-shogaol) for 24 h. Supernatants were collected and analyzed for the production of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) by standard ELISA assays. Predominant compounds in the organic extracts were identified as 6-, 8- 10-gingerols and 6-, 8-, 10-shogaols. Organic extracts or standards containing gingerols were not cytotoxic, while extracts or standards containing predominantly shogaols were cytotoxic at concentrations above 20 microg/ml. Crude organic extracts of ginger were capable of inhibiting LPS induced PGE(2) (IC(50)<0.1 microg/ml) production. However, extracts were not nearly as effective at inhibiting TNF-alpha (IC(50)>30 microg/ml). Thirty three fractions and subfractions, prepared by column chromatography, were analyzed for bioactivity. Extracts containing either predominantly gingerols or shogaols (identified by HPLC) were both highly active at inhibiting LPS-induced PGE(2) production (IC(50)<0.1 microg/ml), while extracts that contained unknown compounds were less effective (IC(50)<3.2 microg/ml). Extracts or standards containing predominantly gingerols were capable of inhibiting LPS-induced COX-2 expression while shogaol containing extracts had no effect on COX-2 expression. These data demonstrate that compounds found in ginger are capable of inhibiting PGE(2) production and that the compounds may act at several sites.

Ginger promotes health and healing in many ways.:

According to Chinese and Ayurvedic herbal lore, it strengthens the nervous system, restores sexual energy, strengthens the immune system, helps with bronchial problems, prevents and relieves menstrual cramps, clears the uterus after childbirth, and promotes health recovery (builds strength from long-term illness).
When shopping, select gingerroot that is firm, fresh in appearance, with wrinkle-free skin. Wrinkly, dried-up gingerroot can be woody, tough, stringy, difficult to chop, and unpleasant to chew!

Analgesic, antiinflammatory and hypoglycaemic effects of ethanol extract of Zingiber officinale (roscoe) rhizomes (zingiberaceae) in mice and rats.:

The present study was undertaken to investigate the analgesic, antiinflammatory and hypoglycaemic effects of Zingiber officinale dried rhizomes ethanol extract (ZOE) in mice and rats. The analgesic effect of ZOE was evaluated by 'hot-plate' and 'acetic acid' analgesic test methods in mice; while the antiinflammatory and hypoglycaemic effects of the plant extract were investigated in rats, using fresh egg albumin-induced pedal oedema, and streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes mellitus models. Morphine (MPN, 10 mg/kg), diclofenac (DIC, 100 mg/kg) and chlorpropamide (250 mg/kg) were used as reference drugs for comparison. ZOE (50-800 mg/kg i.p.) produced dose-dependent, significant (p < 0.05-0.001) analgesic effects against thermally and chemically induced nociceptive pain in mice. The plant extract (ZOE, 50-800 mg/kg p.o.) also significantly (p < 0.05-0.001) inhibited fresh egg albumin-induced acute inflammation, and caused dose-related, significant (p < 0.05-0.001) hypoglycaemia in normal (normoglycaemic) and diabetic rats. The findings of this experimental animal study indicate that Zingiber officinale rhizomes ethanol extract possesses analgesic, antiinflammatory and hypoglycaemic properties; and thus lend pharmacological support to folkloric, ethnomedical uses of ginger in the treatment and/or management of painful, arthritic inflammatory conditions, as well as in the management and/or control of type 2 diabetes mellitus in some rural Africa communities.

Variation in concentration and labeling of ginger root dietary supplements.:

OBJECTIVE: Ginger root dietary supplements are often used to alleviate symptoms of nausea and vomiting associated with pregnancy. In this study, we determined the variation in 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 8-gingerol, and 10-gingerol concentrations and labeling of different brands of ginger root dietary supplements. METHODS: Ten different ginger root dietary supplements were purchased randomly at local pharmacies and health food stores. The 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 8-gingerol, and 10-gingerol concentrations of the dietary supplements were determined by high-performance liquid-chromatography. In addition, we examined the container labeling for the amount of ginger root powder or extract in each capsule, the serving size, ingredients, expiration date, lot number, standardization procedure, and suggested use. RESULTS: The 6-gingerol concentration of the ginger powder dietary supplements ranged from 0.0 to 9.43 mg/g, (mean +/- standard deviation, 2.56 +/- 2.95 mg/g), 6-shogaol ranged from 0.16 to 2.18 mg/g (1.27 +/- 0.58), 8-gingerol ranged from 0.00 to 1.1 mg/g (0.47 +/- 0.34), and 10-gingerol ranged from 0.00 to 1.40 mg/g (0.36 +/- 0.51). The amounts of 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 8-gingerol, and 10-gingerol in the ginger root dietary supplements varied widely on both a milligram per gram basis and on a milligram per capsule basis. Likewise, the suggested ginger serving sizes varied from 250 mg to 4.77 g per day. CONCLUSION: The results of this study indicate that there is a wide variation in the gingerol composition and in the suggested serving sizes of ginger root powder from different manufacturers. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: II-3.

Gingerol Metabolite and a Synthetic Analogue Capsaroltrade mark Inhibit Macrophage NF-kappaB-Mediated iNOS Gene Expression and Enzyme Activity.:

Ginger ( ZINGIBER OFFICINALE) is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine, with beneficial effects reported in numerous diseases, including inflammation. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), a proinflammatory enzyme responsible for the generation of nitric oxide (NO), has been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases. Gingerols, the main pungent principles of ginger, have anti-inflammatory properties IN VITRO. In this study we examine the inhibitory effect of a stable [6]-gingerol metabolite, RAC-[6]-dihydroparadol ([6]-DHP) and a closely related gingerol analogue, RAC-2-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)dodecan-3-one [a capsaicin/gingerol (Capsaroltrade mark) analogue referred to as ZTX42] on NO production, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) activity and protein expression levels in a murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7. Both ZTX42 and [6]-DHP significantly inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced NO production in a concentration-dependent manner, with an IC (50) of 1.45 +/- 0.03 muM and 7.24 +/- 0.22 muM, respectively ( P < 0.05). Although both compounds partially inhibited the catalytic activity of iNOS, their inhibitory effect was predominantly due to attenuation of iNOS protein production. This occurred at the transcriptional level, since the gingerol compounds decreased LPS-induced IkappaB-alpha degradation, prevented nuclear translocation of NF-kappaB p65 and reduced NF-kappaB activity in a concentration-dependent manner. Taken together, these results show that ZTX42 and [6]-DHP suppress NO production in murine macrophages by partially inhibiting iNOS enzymatic activity and reducing iNOS protein production, via attenuation of NF-kappaB-mediated iNOS gene expression, providing a rationale for the anti-inflammatory activity reported for this class of compounds. ZTX42: RAC-2-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)dodecan-3-one COX:cyclo-oxygenase [6]-DHP: RAC-[6]-dihydroparadol LPS:lipopolysaccharide MTT:3-(3,4-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide NF-kappaB:nuclear factor-kappaB NO:nitric oxide NOS:nitric oxide synthase PDTC:pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate TRPV1:vanilloid receptor 1.

The effect of extracts from ginger rhizome on inflammatory mediator production.:

Compounds from rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, commonly called ginger, have been purported to have anti-inflammatory actions. We have used an in vitro test system to test the anti-inflammatory activity of compounds isolated from ginger rhizome. U937 cells were differentiated and exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Escherichia coli (1mug/ml) in the presence or absence of organic extracts or standard compounds found in ginger (6-, 8-, 10-gingerol or 6-shogaol) for 24h. Supernatants were collected and analyzed for the production of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) by standard ELISA assays. Predominant compounds in the organic extracts were identified as 6-, 8- 10-gingerols and 6-, 8-, 10-shogaols. Organic extracts or standards containing gingerols were not cytotoxic, while extracts or standards containing predominantly shogaols were cytotoxic at concentrations above 20mug/ml. Crude organic extracts of ginger were capable of inhibiting LPS induced PGE(2) (IC(50)<0.1mug/ml) production. However, extracts were not nearly as effective at inhibiting TNF-alpha (IC(50)>30mug/ml). Thirty three fractions and subfractions, prepared by column chromatography, were analyzed for bioactivity. Extracts containing either predominantly gingerols or shogaols (identified by HPLC) were both highly active at inhibiting LPS-induced PGE(2) production (IC(50)<0.1mug/ml), while extracts that contained unknown compounds were less effective (IC(50)<3.2mug/ml). Extracts or standards containing predominantly gingerols were capable of inhibiting LPS-induced COX-2 expression while shogaol containing extracts had no effect on COX-2 expression. These data demonstrate that compounds found in ginger are capable of inhibiting PGE(2) production and that the compounds may act at several sites.

Beneficial effects of Zingiber officinale on goldthioglucose induced obesity.:

Goldthioglucose induces in mice a significant increase in body weight, glucose, insulin and lipid levels. Treatment with 250 mg/kg of methanol and ethyl acetate extracts of Zingiber officinale for 8 weeks produces significant reduction in body weight, glucose, insulin and lipid levels as compared to obese control mice. The reduction in elevated glucose along with elevated insulin levels indicates that the treatment with Z. officinale improves insulin sensitivity.

Antiobesity actions of Zingiber officinale Roscoe:

Zingiber officinale Roscoe has been used as a folk medicine in China. An aqueous extract of Z. officinale Roscoe inhibited the hydrolysis of triolein emulsified with phosphatidylcholine by pancreatic lipase in vitro and it reduced the elevation of rat plasma triacylglycerol levels 1 and 2 h after oral administration of a lipid emulsion containing corn oil. These results suggest that the aqueous extract of Z. officinale Roscoe might inhibit the intestinal absorption of dietary fat by inhibiting its hydrolysis. Therefore we investigated the antiobesity effects of the aqueous extract of Z. officinale Roscoe by feeding a high-fat diet to mice for 8 weeks. Body weights at 2-8 weeks and final parametrial adipose tissue weights were significantly lower in mice fed the high-fat diet containing 3% aqueous extract of Z. officinale Roscoe than in the controls fed the high-fat diet. Feeding a high-fat diet containing 1% aqueous extract of Z. officinale Roscoe also significantly reduced final parametrial adipose tissue weights that were elevated in mice fed the high-fat diet alone. Our data suggest that the antiobesity effect of aqueous extract of Z. officinale Roscoe in mice fed a high-fat diet may be due in part to the inhibition of intestinal absorption of dietary fat by the active compounds of Z. officinale Roscoe.

Safety and efficacy of NT, an herbal supplement, in treating human obesity.:

Objective:A human pilot study testing the safety and effectiveness of NT (Number Ten), a dietary herbal supplement made from rhubarb, ginger, astragulus, red sage and turmeric, to reduce food intake and cause weight loss.Research methods and procedures:A total of 24 healthy women, 18-60 years, body mass index 25-35 kg/m(2) on no chronic medication were randomized to four groups of six: (1) oral freeze-dried NT 6 gm/day, (2) bed-dried NT 6 gm/day, (3) freeze-dried NT 12 gm/day or (4) placebo. Number Ten dose was escalated over 3 weeks and maintained for 8 weeks on a 700 kcal/day diet below maintenance. Food intake was measured at baseline and 4 weeks. Safety parameters were monitored weekly during dose escalation, week 6 and week 12.Results:Weight loss was 1.8 kg for placebo and 0.4 kg for 500 mg NT whereas the 250 mg bed- and freeze-dried NT gained 0.43 and 0.87 kg, respectively (P=NS). The food intake increased 74 kcal with 250 mg freeze-dried NT and decreased 193.7 kcal with 500 mg freeze-dried NT (P<0.01). There was a dose-related incidence of loose stools in the NT groups, but no other toxicity was seen. Number Ten was found to contain sennosides, known laxatives and gallic acid, which is known to give weight loss in rodents.Discussion:The human dose equivalent of NT used in this study was ⅙ and &frac112; of that shown to give well-tolerated weight loss in rodents. Number Ten will not be an effective dietary herbal supplement for the treatment of obesity owing to dose-limiting gastrointestinal toxicity.International Journal of Obesity advance online publication, 25 April 2006; doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803343.

Effects of combining extracts (from propolis or Zingiber officinale) with clarithromycin on Helicobacter pylori.:

Propolis and Zingiber officinale have been shown to be specifically targeted against Helicobacter pylori strains, to possess antiinflammatory, antioxidant and antitumoral activity and to be used in traditional medicine for the treatment of gastrointestinal ailments. Considering that these natural products could potentially serve as novel therapeutic tools also in combination with an antibiotic, the aim of this work was to evaluate their effect when combined with clarithromycin on clinical H. pylori isolates (n = 25), characterized in respect to both clarithromycin susceptibility and the presence of the cagA gene. The results showed that the combinations of propolis extract + clarithromycin and Z. officinale extract + clarithromycin exhibited improved inhibition of H. pylori with synergistic or additive activity. Interestingly, the susceptibility to combinations was significantly independent of the microbial clarithromycin susceptibility status. Only one H. pylori strain showed antagonism towards the Z. officinale extract + clarithromycin combination. The data demonstrate that combinations of propolis extract + clarithromycin and Z. officinale extract + clarithromycin have the potential to help control H. pylori-associated gastroduodenal disease.

Synergistic effect of [10]-gingerol and aminoglycosides against vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE).:

An extract from ginger (root of Zingiber officinale) reduced the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of aminoglycosides in vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). The effective compound was isolated and identified as [10]-gingerol. In the presence of [10]-gingerol at 1/10 concentration of its own MIC, the MIC of arbekacin was lowered by 1/32 to 1/16. [10]-Gingerol also reduced the MICs of other aminoglycosides, and of bacitracin and polymixin B, but not of other antimicrobial agents tested. Because [10]-gingerol reduced the MICs of several aminoglycosides both in strains possessing or lacking aminoglycoside-modification enzymes, it seems that the effect of [10]-gingerol is not related to these enzymes, which mainly confer bacterial resistance against aminoglycosides. It seemed that a detergent-like effect of [10]-gingerol potentiated the antimicrobial activity of the aminoglycosides. In fact, some detergents such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and Triton X-100 reduced the MICs of aminoglycosides, bacitracin and polymixin B in VRE. Since the intrinsic resistance to aminoglycosides in enterococci is due to low level of entry of the drugs into the cells, increase in the membrane permeability caused by [10]-gingerol will enhance the influx of aminoglycosides into enterococcal cells.

Ultrasonic enhancement of the supercritical extraction from ginger.:

This work examines the concurrent use of power ultrasound during the extraction of pungent compounds from a typical herb (ginger) with supercritical CO(2). A power ultrasonic transducer with an operating frequency of 20kHz is connected to an extraction vessel and the extraction of gingerols from freeze-dried ginger particles (4-8mm) is monitored. In the presence of ultrasound, we find that both the extraction rate and the yield increase. The higher extraction rate is attributed to disruption of the cell structures and an increase in the accessibility of the solvent to the internal particle structure, which enhances the intra-particle diffusivity. While cavitation would readily account for such enhancement in ambient processes, the absence of phase boundaries should exclude such phenomena above the critical point. Possible alternate mechanisms for the cell structure damage are discussed.

Plant foods in the management of diabetes mellitus: spices as beneficial antidiabetic food adjuncts.:

Diet has been recognized as a corner stone in the management of diabetes mellitus. Spices are the common dietary adjuncts that contribute to the taste and flavour of foods. Besides, spices are also known to exert several beneficial physiological effects including the antidiabetic influence. This review considers all the available information from animal experimentation as well as clinical trials where spices, their extracts or their active principles were examined for treatment of diabetes. Among the spices, fenugreek seeds (Trigonella foenumgraecum), garlic (Allium sativum), onion (Allium cepa), and turmeric (Curcuma longa) have been experimentally documented to possess antidiabetic potential. In a limited number of studies, cumin seeds (Cuminum cyminum), ginger (Zingiber officinale), mustard (Brassica nigra), curry leaves (Murraya koenigii) and coriander (Coriandrum sativum) have been reported to be hypoglycaemic.

Suppressive effects of mioga ginger and ginger constituents on reactive oxygen and nitrogen species generation, and the expression of inducible pro-inflammatory genes in macrophages.:

We previously conducted screening tests of the chloroform extracts from a total of 89 species of plant food items for their suppressive effects on superoxide (O(2) ()) generation through both NADPH oxidase and xanthine oxidase, and reported that mioga ginger (Zingiber mioga Roscoe) indicated the strongest suppressive activities. In this study, the suppressive effects of mioga ginger constituents, aframodial, and galanal B, together with [6]-gingerol and galanolactone occurring in ginger, on free radical generation and inducible proinflammatory gene expressions were investigated. Of these constituents, aframodial (20 microM) exhibited marked suppressive effects on 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced O(2) () generation in HL-60 cells and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/interferon-gamma-induced nitric oxide (NO) generation in RAW264.7 cells (inhibition rates [IRs]=84.6% and 95.9%, respectively). Aframodial also strongly suppressed the stimulated HL-60 cell-induced mutagenicity in AS52 cells (IR=95.9%). The LPS-induced expression of inducible proinflammatory genes such as inducible NO synthase, interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor was significantly abolished (IRs=99.1%, 74.6%, 74.0%, and 64.4%, respectively) by aframodial. In addition, degradation of the inhibitor of nuclear factor kappaB was suppressed by this compound (IR=100%), suggesting that the suppression of nuclear factor kappaB activation, at least in part, is involved. Taken together, these results suggest that aframodial has potent antioxidative and anti-inflammatory potentials, and may be a promising candidate in prevention and/or therapy for chronic inflammationassociated carcinogenesis. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 7, 1621-1629.

Zingiberis rhizoma: a comprehensive review on the ginger effect and efficacy profiles.:

Zingiberis rhizoma is used as a broadspectrum antiemetic. We, therefore, conducted a comprehensive review of the literature to summarize the pharmacological and clinical effects of this popular plant material. Although clinical and experimental studies suggest that ginger has some antiemetic properties, clinical evidence beyond doubt is only available for pregnancy-related nausea and vomiting. Meta-analyses could not demonstrate the postoperative antiemetic effectiveness, and effect in motion sickness or nausea/vomiting of other ethiology. It also remains to be confirmed that proprietary ginger preparations are clinically useful to alleviate osteoarthritic or other pain, although there is no doubt that ginger constituents interfere with the inflammatory cascade and the vanilloid nociceptor. Ginger exerts in vitro antioxidative, antitumorigenic and immunomodulatory effects and is an effective antimicrobial and antiviral agent. Animal studies demonstrate effects on the gastrointestinal tract, the cardiovascular system, on experimental pain and fever, antioxidative, antilipidemic and antitumor effects, as well as central and other effects. The most relevant human pharmacological studies require a confirmatory study to exclude interaction of ginger preparations with platelet aggregation. Pharmacokinetic data are only available for [6]-gingerol and zingiberene. Preclinical safety data do not rule out potential toxicity, which should be monitored especially following ginger consumption over longer periods.

Characterization of gingerol-related compounds in ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) by high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry.:

This study sought to determine the utility of liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-MS/MS) coupled with diode array detection in identifying gingerol-related compounds from crude extracts of ginger rhizome. The fragmentation behaviors of compounds in both (-)- and (+)ESI-MS/MS were used to infer and confirm the chemical structures of several groups of compounds, including the gingerols, methylgingerols, gingerol acetates, shogaols, paradols, gingerdiols, mono- and diacetyl gingerdiols, and dehydrogingerdiones. Diode array detection at different wavelengths was used to confirm MS/MS-based identification. In total, 31 gingerol-related compounds were identified from the methanolic crude extracts of fresh ginger rhizome in this study. Three of these compounds were found to be new compounds. This study demonstrated that LC/ESI-MS/MS is a powerful on-line tool for identification of gingerol-related compounds, especially for thermally labile compounds that cannot be readily detected by GC/MS analysis.

Pharmacological basis for the medicinal use of ginger in gastrointestinal disorders.:

Ginger (rhizome of Zingiber officinale) has been widely used for centuries in gastrointestinal disorders, particularly dyspepsia, but its precise mode of action has yet to be elucidated. This study was undertaken to study the prokinetic action of ginger and its possible mechanism of action. Prokinetic activity of ginger extract (Zo.Cr) was confirmed in an in vivo test when it enhanced the intestinal travel of charcoal meal in mice. This propulsive effect of the extract, similar to that of carbachol, was blocked in atropine-pretreated mice, a standard cholinergic antagonist. Likewise, Zo.Cr showed an atropine-sensitive dose-dependent spasmogenic effect in vitro as well as in isolated rat and mouse stomach fundus tissues. In atropinized tissue, it showed spasmolytic activity as shown by the inhibition of 5-HT- and K+-induced contractions. A spasmolytic effect was also observed in other gut preparations either as noncompetitive inhibition of agonist dose-response curves, inhibition of high K+(80 mM)-induced contractions, or displacement of Ca2+ dose-response curves to the right, indicating a calcium antagonist effect. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of saponins, flavonoids, and alkaloids in the crude extract. These data indicate that Zo.Cr contains a cholinergic, spasmogenic component evident in stomach fundus preparations which provides a sound mechanistic insight for the prokinetic action of ginger. In addition, the presence of a spasmolytic constituent(s) of the calcium antagonist type may explain its use in hyperactive states of gut like colic and diarrhea.

Metabolic profiling and phylogenetic analysis of medicinal Zingiber species: Tools for authentication of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.).:

Phylogenetic analysis and metabolic profiling were used to investigate the diversity of plant material within the ginger species and between ginger and closely related species in the genus Zingiber (Zingiberaceae). In addition, anti-inflammatory data were obtained for the investigated species. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that all Zingiber officinale samples from different geographical origins were genetically indistinguishable. In contrast, other Zingiber species were significantly divergent, allowing all species to be clearly distinguished using this analysis. In the metabolic profiling analysis, the Z. officinale samples derived from different origins showed no qualitative differences in major volatile compounds, although they did show some significant quantitative differences in non-volatile composition, particularly regarding the content of [6]-, [8]-, and [10]-gingerols, the most active anti-inflammatory components in this species. The differences in gingerol content were verified by HPLC. The metabolic profiles of other Zingiber species were very different, both qualitatively and quantitatively, when compared to Z. officinale and to each other. Comparative DNA sequence/chemotaxonomic phylogenetic trees showed that the chemical characters of the investigated species were able to generate essentially the same phylogenetic relationships as the DNA sequences. This supports the contention that chemical characters can be used effectively to identify relationships between plant species. Anti-inflammatory in vitro assays to evaluate the ability of all extracts from the Zingiber species examined to inhibit LPS-induced PGE(2) and TNF-alpha production suggested that bioactivity may not be easily predicted by either phylogenetic analysis or gross metabolic profiling. Therefore, identification and quantification of the actual bioactive compounds are required to guarantee the bioactivity of a particular Zingiber sample even after performing authentication by molecular and/or chemical markers.

[6]-Gingerol, a pungent ingredient of ginger, inhibits angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo.:

[6]-Gingerol, a pungent ingredient of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae), has anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor-promoting activities. Here, we describe its novel anti-angiogenic activity in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, [6]-gingerol inhibited both the VEGF- and bFGF-induced proliferation of human endothelial cells and caused cell cycle arrest in the G1 phase. It also blocked capillary-like tube formation by endothelial cells in response to VEGF, and strongly inhibited sprouting of endothelial cells in the rat aorta and formation of new blood vessel in the mouse cornea in response to VEGF. Moreover, i.p. administration, without reaching tumor cytotoxic blood levels, to mice receiving i.v. injection of B16F10 melanoma cells, reduced the number of lung metastasis, with preservation of apparently healthy behavior. Taken together, these results demonstrate that [6]-gingerol inhibits angiogenesis and may be useful in the treatment of tumors and other angiogenesis-dependent diseases.

Zingerone as an antioxidant against peroxynitrite.:

Peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)), formed from the reaction of superoxide ((*)O(2)(-)) and nitric oxide ((*)NO), induces cellular and tissue injury, resulting in several human diseases such as stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and atherosclerosis. Due to the lack of endogenous enzymes responsible for ONOO(-) scavenging activity, finding a specific ONOO(-) scavenger is of considerable importance. In this study we examined the scavenging effects of zingerone from ginger against ONOO(-), intracellular RS (reactive species), and ONOO(-). The data show that zingerone can efficiently scavenge native ONOO(-) as well as ONOO(-) derived from the peroxynitrite donor 3-morpholinosydnonimine hydrochloride (SIN-1). Zingerone inhibited the formation of ONOO(-)-mediated tyrosine nitration through electron donation, nitration of bovine serum albumin (BSA) by ONOO(-), and intracellular RS and ONOO(-). The present study suggests that zingerone has an efficient ONOO(-) scavenging ability, which may be a potent ONOO(-) scavenger for the protection of the cellular defense activity against ONOO(-)- involved diseases.

An antifungal protein from ginger rhizomes.:

There are very few reports on antifungal proteins from rhizomes and there is none from the family of Zingiberaceae. An antifungal protein with a novel N-terminal sequence was isolated from ginger rhizomes utilizing a protocol that involved ion exchange chromatography on DEAE-cellulose, affinity chromatography on Affi-gel blue gel, and fast protein liquid chromatography on Superdex 75. The protein was unadsorbed on DEAE-cellulose and adsorbed on Affi-gel blue gel. It exhibited an apparent molecular mass of 32kDa and exerted antifungal activity toward various fungi including Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium oxysporum, Mycosphaerella arachidicola, and Physalospora piricola.

Study on quality standard of extracts from Rhizoma Zingiberis by supercritical fluid extraction:

Objective: To establish the quality standard of extracts from Rhizoma Zingiberis by supercritical CO2 fluid extraction. Method: The extracts were identified by TLC. The total phenols and the 6-gingerol were determined by dual-wavelength UV spectrophotometry and HPLC separately. Result: The recovery of total phenols was 97.7% (RSD 2.0%). The linear range of 6-gingerol is 0.20-2.0 microg, the average recovery was 97.7% (RSD 2.0%). CONCLUSION: The method is convenient for a good resolution and can be used for the quality control of extracts from Rhizoma Zingiberis.

5-HT3 receptor blocking activity of arylalkanes isolated from the rhizome of Zingiber officinale.:

Different extracts (ethanolic, hexane, aqueous) of ginger (rhizomes of Zingiber officinale) and the essential oil were tested using [14C]guanidinium influx into N1E-115 cells and the isolated rat ileum in order to identify their activity in inhibiting 5-HT3 receptor function. The hexane extract proved to be the most active and yielded upon bioassay-guided fractionation nine constituents: [6]-, [8]-, [10]-gingerols, [6]- and [8]-shogaols which were previously shown as active in vivo against cytotoxic drug-induced emesis; [4]-gingerol, [6]-gingerdiol, diacetyl-[6]-gingerdiol and [6]-dehydrogingerdione have not been previously tested for anti-emetic or 5-HT3 receptor antagonistic effects. Even though the latter four compounds are only minor constituents, their identification contributed towards the characterisation of a structure-activity relationship of this class of compounds. The order of potency for the nine constituents in the N1E-115 cell system was [6]-gingerdiol approximately diacetyl-[6]-gingerdiol approximately [6]-dehydrogingerdione approximately [6]-shogaol > or = [8]-shogaol approximately [8]-gingerol > [10]-gingerol > or = [6]-gingerol > [4]-gingerol.

Zingerone [4-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-butanone] prevents 6-hydroxydopamine-induced dopamine depression in mouse striatum and increases superoxide scavenging activity in serum.:

As superoxide (*O(2)-) and hydroxyl radical (*OH) have been implicated in pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease, free radical scavenging, antioxidant, and neuroprotective agents have attracted attention as ways to prevent progression. We examined effects of zingerone, an alkaloid extracted from ginger root, on 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced dopamine (DA) reduction in mouse striatum. Zingerone administration 1 h before and for 6 more days following one intracerebroventricular 6-OHDA injection prevented reductions of striatal DA and its metabolites, and increased serum *O(2)- scavenging activity. Zingerone did not change activities of catalase or glutathione peroxidase in striatum or serum, or *O(2)- scavenging activity in striatum. Treatment with diethyldithiocarbamate, SOD inhibitor, abolished the protective effect of zingerone against 6-OHDA-induced DA reduction. In vitro, zingerone scavenged *O(2)- and *OH and suppressed lipid peroxidation only weakly. Thus, direct antioxidant effects may be a minor component of its putative neuroprotective effect; instead, zingerone acted mainly by increasing systemic superoxide dismutase activity. Effects of zingerone treatment in this model suggest possible value in treatment of Parkinson's disease.

Gingerol content of diploid and tetraploid clones of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe).:

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), a monocotyledonous, sterile cultigen, is widely used as a spice, flavoring agent, and herbal medicine. The pungency of fresh ginger is due to a series of homologous phenolic ketones of which [6]-gingerol is the major one. The gingerols are thermally unstable and can be converted to their corresponding shogaols, which are present in dried ginger. Fresh rhizomes of 17 clones of Australian ginger, including commercial cultivars and experimental tetraploid clones, were assayed by HPLC for gingerols and shogaols. [6]-Gingerol was identified as the major pungent phenolic compound in all samples, while [8]- and [10]-gingerol occurred in lower concentrations. One cultivar known as "Jamaican" contained the highest concentrations of all three gingerols and was the most pungent of the clones analyzed. Gingerols were stable in ethanolic solution over a 5-month period when stored at 4 degrees C. Shogaols were not identified in the extracts prepared from fresh rhizomes at ambient temperature, confirming that these compounds are not native constituents of fresh ginger. In contrast to previous findings, this study did not find significant differences in gingerol concentrations between the tetraploid clones and their parent diploid cultivar.

Isolation of a natural antioxidant, dehydrozingerone from Zingiber officinale and synthesis of its analogues for recognition of effective antioxidant and antityrosinase agents.:

In the present study, the antioxidative and inhibitory activity of Zingiber officinale Rosc. rhizomes-derived materials (on mushroom tyrosinase) were evaluated. The bioactive components of Z. officinale rhizomes were characterized by spectroscopic analysis as zingerone and dehydrozingerone, which exhibited potent antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibition activities. A series of substituted dehydrozingerones [(E)-4-phenyl-3-buten-2-ones] were prepared in admirable yields by the reaction of appropriate benzaldehydes with acetone and the products were evaluated in terms of variation in the dehydrozingerone structure. The synthetic analogues were examined for their antioxidant and antityrosinase activities to probe the most potent analogue. Compound 26 inhibited Fe2+-induced lipid peroxidation in rat brain homogenate with an IC50 = 6.3+/-0.4 microM. In the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical quencher assay, compounds 2, 7, 17, 26, 28, and 29 showed radical scavenging activity equal to or higher than those of the standard antioxidants, like alpha-tocopherol and ascorbic acid. Compound 27 displayed superior inhibition of tyrosinase activity relative to other examined analogues. Compounds 2, 17, and 26 exhibited non-competitive inhibition against oxidation of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA). From the present study, it was observed that both number and position of hydroxyl groups on aromatic ring and a double bond between C-3 and C-4 played a critical role in exerting the antioxidant and antityrosinase activity.

Mechanism of inhibition of peroxynitrite-induced oxidation and nitration by [6]-gingerol.:

[6]-Gingerol potently inhibits peroxynitrite-induced oxidation and nitration reactions, but its mechanism of action is unclear. In order to discover the mechanism of inhibition, [6]-gingerol was reacted with peroxynitrite and the reaction mixture was analyzed using HPLC. The HPLC chromatogram showed one novel peak, indicative of the formation of a reaction product between [6]-gingerol and peroxynitrite. This compound was purified and identified as a symmetrical dimer of [6]-gingerol covalently linked at the aromatic ring. It has been assumed that this dimer is generated from a phenoxyl radical intermediate produced from [6]-gingerol via one-electron oxidation by peroxynitrite-derived radicals. We propose a mechanism in which [6]-gingerol scavenges peroxynitrite-derived radicals and consequently inhibits peroxynitrite-induced oxidation and nitration reactions.

[6]-Gingerol inhibits COX-2 expression by blocking the activation of p38 MAP kinase and NF-kappaB in phorbol ester-stimulated mouse skin.:

[6]-Gingerol, a pungent ingredient of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae), has a wide array of pharmacologic effects. The present study was aimed at unraveling the molecular mechanisms underlying previously reported antitumor promoting effects of [6]-gingerol in mouse skin in vivo. One of the well-recognized molecular targets for chemoprevention is cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) that is abnormally upregulated in many premalignant and malignant tissues and cells. In our present study, topical application of [6]-gingerol inhibited COX-2 expression in mouse skin stimulated with a prototype tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). Since the transcription factor nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) is known to regulate COX-2 induction, we attempted to determine the effect of [6]-gingerol on TPA-induced activation of NF-kappaB. Pretreatment with [6]-gingerol resulted in a decrease in both TPA-induced DNA binding and transcriptional activities of NF-kappaB through suppression of IkappaBalpha degradation and p65 nuclear translocation. Phosphorylation of both IkappaBalpha and p65 was substantially blocked by [6]-gingerol. In addition, [6]-gingerol inhibited TPA-stimulated interaction of phospho-p65-(Ser-536) with cAMP response element binding protein-binding protein, a transcriptional coactivator of NF-kappaB. Moreover, [6]-gingerol prevented TPA-induced phosphorylation and catalytic activity of p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase that regulates COX-2 expression in mouse skin. The p38 MAP kinase inhibitor SB203580 attenuated NF-kappaB activation and subsequent COX-2 induction in TPA-treated mouse skin. Taken together, our data suggest that [6]-gingerol inhibits TPA-induced COX-2 expression in mouse skin in vivo by blocking the p38 MAP kinase-NF-kappaB signaling pathway.

Enhancement of insulin sensitivity in adipocytes by ginger.:

Antidiabetic and hypoglycemic drugs have been reported to enhance adipocyte differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. We previously reported that ginseng (active constituents: ginsenosides) enhanced the differentiation [1]. In this experiment, effect of some ginger group food extracts on the adipocyte differentiation was investigated using cultured mouse 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. 3T3-L1 cells were grown as monolayer cultures at 37 degrees C in DMEM supplemented by 10% FBS under the atmosphere of 5% CO(2)-95% air. Ginger extracts were found to enhance the adipocyte differentiation. Active constituent was purified and identified as gingerol. In the gingerol-treated cells, insulin-sensitive glucose uptake was increased. It is expected that ginger enhance the insulin-sensitivity, and improve chronic disease, such as diabetes.

Antioxidant properties of gingerol related compounds from ginger.:

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) shows an antioxidant activity, and we have been engaging to determine the structures of more than 50 antioxidants isolated from the rhizomes of ginger. The isolated antioxidants are divided into two groups; gingerol related compounds and diarylheptanoids. In this study, structure-activity relationship of gingerol related compounds was evaluated. Gingerol related compounds substituted with an alkyl group bearing 10-, 12- or 14-carbon chain length were isolated from the dichloromethane extract of rhizomes using repeated chromatographic techniques. The antioxidant activities of these compounds were evaluated by the following measurements; 1) 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, 2) inhibitory effect on oxidation of methyl linoleate under aeration and heating by the Oil Stability Index (OSI) method, and 3) inhibitory effect on oxidation of liposome induced by 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane)dihydrochloride (AAPH). These results suggested that the substituents on the alkyl chain might contribute to both radical scavenging effect and inhibitory effect of autoxidation of oils, while inhibitory effects against the AAPH-induced peroxidation of liposome was somewhat influenced by the alkyl chain length; the antioxidant activity might be due to not only radical scavenging activity of antioxidants but also their affinity of the antioxidants to the substrates.

Ginger lowers blood pressure through blockade of voltage-dependent calcium channels.:

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), a well-known spice plant, has been used traditionally in a wide variety of ailments including hypertension. We report here the cardiovascular effects of ginger under controlled experimental conditions. The crude extract of ginger (Zo.Cr) induced a dose-dependent (0.3-3 mg/kg) fall in the arterial blood pressure of anesthetized rats. In guinea pig paired atria, Zo.Cr exhibited a cardiodepressant activity on the rate and force of spontaneous contractions. In rabbit thoracic aorta preparation, Zo.Cr relaxed the phenylephrine-induced vascular contraction at a dose 10 times higher than that required against K (80 mM)-induced contraction. Ca2+ channel-blocking (CCB) activity was confirmed when Zo.Cr shifted the Ca2+ dose-response curves to the right similar to the effect of verapamil. It also inhibited the phenylephrine (1 microM) control peaks in normal-Ca2+ and Ca2+-free solution, indicating that it acts at both the membrane-bound and the intracellular Ca2+ channels. When tested in endothelium-intact rat aorta, it again relaxed the K-induced contraction at a dose 14 times less than that required for relaxing the PE-induced contraction. The vasodilator effect of Zo.Cr was endothelium-independent because it was not blocked by L-NAME (0.1 mM) or atropine (1 microM) and also was reproduced in the endothelium-denuded preparations at the same dose range. These data indicate that the blood pressure-lowering effect of ginger is mediated through blockade of voltage-dependent calcium channels.

Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of [6]-gingerol.:

In the present study, the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of [6]-gingerol, which is the pungent constituent of ginger, were performed. Intraperitoneal administration of [6]-gingerol (25 mg/kg-50 mg/kg) produced an inhibition of acetic acid-induced writhing response and formalin-induced licking time in the late phase. [6]-Gingerol (50 mg/kg-100 mg/kg) also produced an inhibition of paw edema induced by carrageenin. These results suggested that [6]-gingerol possessed analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities.

Total phenolics and antioxidant activities of fenugreek, green tea, black tea, grape seed, ginger, rosemary, gotu kola, and ginkgo extracts, vitamin E, and tert-butylhydroquinone.:

The total phenolics and antioxidant activities of fenugreek, green tea, black tea, grape seed, ginger, rosemary, gotu kola, and ginkgo extracts, vitamin E, and tert-butylhydroquinone, were determined. Grape seed and green tea were analyzed for their phenolic constituents using high-performance liquid chromatography. The total phenolics of the plant extracts, determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu method, ranged from 24.8 to 92.5 mg of chlorogenic acid equivalent/g dry material. The antioxidant activities of methanolic extracts determined by conjugated diene measurement of methyl linoleate were 3.4-86.3%. The antioxidant activity of the extracts using chicken fat by an oxidative stability instrument (4.6-10.2 h of induction time) followed a similar trend in antioxidant activity as determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu method. Seven phenolics in grape seed and green tea extracts were identified that ranged from 15.38 to 1158.49 and 18.3 to 1087.02 mg/100 g of extract, respectively. Plant extracts such as green tea and grape seed extracts can be used to retard lipid oxidation in a variety of food products.

Diarylheptanoids from the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale.:

Seven new diarylheptanoids, i.e., (3S,5S)-3,5-diacetoxy-1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)heptane, (3R,5S)-3-acetoxy-5-hydroxy-1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)heptane, (3R,5S)-3,5-dihydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-7-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)heptane, (5S)-5-acetoxy-1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)heptan-3-one, 5-hydroxy-1-(3,4-dihydroxy-5-methoxyphenyl)-7-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)heptan-3-one, 5-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-7-(3,4-dihydroxy-5-methoxy-phenyl)heptan-3-one and 1,5-epoxy-3-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-7-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)heptane were isolated from the rhizomes of Chinese ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), along with 25 known compounds, i.e., 8 diarylheptanoids, 14 gingerol analogs, a diterpene and 2 steroids. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic and chemical methods.

Effective anti-platelet and COX-1 enzyme inhibitors from pungent constituents of ginger.:

Background: Based on recent studies, pungent constituents of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and related substances represent a potential new class of anti-platelet agents. The ability of 20 pungent constituents of ginger and related substances to inhibit arachidonic acid (AA) induced platelet activation in human whole blood was studied. Methods: Anti-platelet activity of the compounds was measured in vitro by the Chrono Log whole blood platelet aggregometer. Molecular hydrophobicity (log P) was measured by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. COX-1 (ovine) inhibitory effect of [8]-paradol and analogues 1 and 5 was carried out using a COX-1 inhibitor assay kit. Results: [8]-Gingerol, [8]-shogaol, [8]-paradol and gingerol analogues (1 and 5) exhibited anti-platelet activities with IC(50) values ranging from 3 to 7 microM, whilst under similar conditions the IC(50) value for aspirin was 20+/-11 microM. The COX-1 inhibitory activity of [8]-paradol (IC(50)=4+/-1 microM) was more potent than the gingerol analogues (1 and 5) (IC(50) approximately 20 microM). Conclusion: The above findings show that gingerol compounds and their derivatives are more potent anti-platelet agents than aspirin under the conditions described in this study. [8]-Paradol, a natural constituent of ginger, was found to be the most potent COX-1 inhibitor and anti platelet aggregation agent. The mechanism underlying AA-induced platelet aggregation inhibition may be related to attenuation of COX-1/Tx synthase enzymatic activity. Lastly, important features of phenolic compounds for inhibition of AA-induced platelet aggregation and COX-1 activity were revealed in this study

HPLC determination of 6-gingerol in Rhizoma Zingiberis Recens:

Objective: To determine the contents of 6-Gingerol in Rhizoma Zingiberis Recens. Method: HPLC method was used, with Alltech C18 column, acetonitrile-methol-water (43:5:52) as mobile phase with a flow rate of 0.8 mL.min-1, detecting wavelength 280 nm, and column temperature 35 degrees C. Result: Retained time of 6-gingerol was near 19 min, showing a good recovery (98.2%) and linear correlation (r = 0.9999). The contents of 6-gingerol were 1.35-2.87 mg.g-1, and the water contents were 70.4-85.5% mL.g-1 in Rhizoma Zingiberis Recens. Conclusion: The method is appropriate for the determination of 6-gingerol in Rhizoma Zingiberis Recens. Gingerol can be used as a chemical marker of the quality control of Rhizoma Zingiberis Recens.

Gingerols: a novel class of vanilloid receptor (VR1) agonists.:

1. Gingerols, the pungent constituents of ginger, were synthesized and assessed as agonists of the capsaicin-activated VR1 (vanilloid) receptor. 2. [6]-Gingerol and [8]-gingerol evoked capsaicin-like intracellular Ca(2+) transients and ion currents in cultured DRG neurones. These effects of gingerols were blocked by capsazepine, the VR1 receptor antagonist. 3. The potency of gingerols increased with increasing size of the side chain and with the overall hydrophobicity in the series. 4. We conclude that gingerols represent a novel class of naturally occurring VR1 receptor agonists that may contribute to the medicinal properties of ginger, which have been known for centuries. The gingerol structure may be used as a template for the development of drugs acting as moderately potent activators of the VR1 receptor.

Shogaols from Zingiber officinale as promising antifouling agents.:

We isolated the highly potent attachment-inhibitors (three times more active than standard CuSO4 in the blue mussel assay), trans-6-, 8-, and 10-shogaols, from a hexane extract of the roots of ginger, Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Trans-8-shogaol showed the highest antifouling activity comparable with that of tributyltin fluoride (TBTF), which is recognized as one of the most effective antifouling agents, in the conventional submerged assay.

The herbal medicine Dai-kenchu-to and one of its active components [6]-shogaol increase intestinal blood flow in rats.:

The present study investigated the effects of the herbal medicine Dai-kenchu-to (DKCT) and its 4 individual ingredients on intestinal blood flow (IBF) in rats by laser Doppler flowmetry. Intraduodenal administration of DKCT (30, 100 and 300 mg/kg) increased IBF in a dose-dependent manner, whereas the mean arterial blood pressure was not affected. One of the ingredients in DKCT is dried ginger rhizome (150 mg/kg), whose main component is [6]-shogaol (2 mg/kg), both of which showed similar effects to those shown by DKCT, while the other ingredients in DKCT only slightly increased IBF or had no effect. The calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) receptor antagonist, CGRP (8-37), completely abolished the hyperemia induced by DKCT, dried ginger rhizome and [6]-shogaol. However, the vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) receptor antagonist, [4-Cl-DPhe6, Leul7]-VIP, and atropine were less inhibitory than CGRP (8-37), and the substance P (SP) receptor antagonist, spantide, had no effect. The present study demonstrated that DKCT and one of its active components, [6]-shogaol, produced an increase in IBF which was mainly mediated by CGRP and suggests that DKCT may be useful in the treatment of intestinal ischemia-related diseases.

First isolation of geranyl disaccharides from ginger and their relations to aroma formation.:

Three geraniol glycosides were isolated from immature fresh ginger rhizomes (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Their structures were identified as geranyl 6-O-alpha-L-arabinopyranosyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside (1) geranyl 6-O-beta-D-apiofuranosyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside (2) and geranyl 6-O-beta-D-xylopyranosyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside (3) by spectrometric analyses. After incubating each glycoside with a crude enzyme solution prepared from ginger, geraniol was liberated in all of those fractions. This result indicates that the glycosides are related to the formation of geraniol-related compounds in ginger aroma.

The stability of gingerol and shogaol in aqueous solutions.:

Gingerols, pungent principles of ginger (the rhizome of Zingiber officinale), are biologically active components that may make a significant contribution towards medicinal applications of ginger and some products derived from ginger. Gingerols, however, are thermally labile due to the presence of a beta-hydroxy keto group in the structure, and undergo dehydration readily to form the corresponding shogaols. This study investigated the stability of [6]-gingerol [5-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)decan-3-one] at temperatures ranging from 37 to 100 degrees C in aqueous solutions, at pH 1, 4, and 7. Quantitative measurements of [6]-gingerol and its major degradation product [6]-shogaol [1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)decan-4-ene-3-one] were performed by HPLC. Kinetics of [6]-gingerol degradation was characterized by least square fitting of a rate equation. It was found that gingerol exhibited novel reversible kinetics, in which it undergoes dehydration-hydration transformations with shogaol, the major degradation product. Degradation rates were found to be pH dependent with greatest stability observed at pH 4. The reversible degradation of [6]-gingerol at 100 degrees C and pH 1 was relatively fast and reached equilibrium within 2 h. Activation energies for the forward and reverse reactions for [6]-gingerol were calculated from the Arrhenius equation using reaction rates obtained at temperatures ranging from 37 to 100 degrees C.

Gingerols and related analogues inhibit arachidonic acid-induced human platelet serotonin release and aggregation.:

Gingerols, the active components of ginger (the rhizome of Zingiber officinale, Roscoe), represent a potential new class of platelet activation inhibitors. In this study, we examined the ability of a series of synthetic gingerols and related phenylalkanol analogues (G1-G7) to inhibit human platelet activation, compared to aspirin, by measuring their effects on arachidonic acid (AA)-induced platelet serotonin release and aggregation in vitro. The IC(50) for inhibition of AA-induced (at EC(50)=0.75 mM) serotonin release by aspirin was 23.4+/-3.6 microM. Gingerols and related analogues (G1-G7) inhibited the AA-induced platelet release reaction in a similar dose range as aspirin, with IC(50) values between 45.3 and 82.6 microM. G1-G7 were also effective inhibitors of AA-induced human platelet aggregation. Maximum inhibitory (IC(max)) values of 10.5+/-3.9 and 10.4+/-3.2 microM for G3 and G4, respectively, were approximately 2-fold greater than aspirin (IC(max)=6.0+/-1.0 microM). The remaining gingerols and related analogues maximally inhibited AA-induced platelet aggregation at approximately 20-25 microM. The mechanism underlying inhibition of the AA-induced platelet release reaction and aggregation by G1-G7 may be via an effect on cyclooxygenase (COX) activity in platelets because representative gingerols and related analogues (G3-G6) potently inhibited COX activity in rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) cells. These results provide a basis for the design of more potent synthetic gingerol analogues, with similar potencies to aspirin, as platelet activation inhibitors with potential value in cardiovascular disease.

Ginger, fat and fibrinolysis.:

Administration of 50 gm of fat to 30 healthy adult volunteers decreased fibrinolytic activity from a mean of 64.20 +/- 5.31 to 52.10 +/- 3.20 units (P < 0.001). Supplementation of 5 gm of ginger powder with fatty meal not only prevented the fall in fibrinolytic activity but actually increased it significantly (P < 0.001). This fibrinolytic enhancing property is a further addition to the therapeutic potential of ginger.

Inhibition of epidermal growth factor-induced cell transformation and activator protein 1 activation by [6]-gingerol.:

Many spices, including plants of the ginger family, possess anticarcinogenic activity. However, the molecular mechanisms by which they exert their antitumorigenic effects are unknown. Activator protein 1 (AP-1) has a critical role in tumor promotion, and blocking of tumor promoter-induced activation of AP-1 inhibits neoplastic transformation. Epidermal growth factor induces cell transformation and AP-1 activity. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of two structurally related compounds of the ginger family, [6]-gingerol and [6]-paradol, on EGF-induced cell transformation and AP-1 activation. Our results provide the first evidence that both block EGF-induced cell transformation but act by different mechanisms.

The safety of a ginger extract in the rat.:

In three different studies on rats, the effects of a patented standardised ginger extract, EV.EXT 33, on blood glucose, blood coagulation, blood pressure and heart rate were investigated. EV.EXT 33 had no significant effect on blood glucose levels at the doses used. It also had no significant effects on coagulation parameters or on Warfarin-induced changes in blood coagulation, indicating that it did not interact with Warfarin. EV.EXT 33 neither decreases systolic blood pressure nor increases heart rate in the rat. As also seen from the literature, ginger is thus pharmacologically safe regarding the investigated aspects.

Ginger extract consumption reduces plasma cholesterol, inhibits LDL oxidation and attenuates development of atherosclerosis in atherosclerotic, apolipoprotein E-deficient mice.:

Oxidative modification of LDL is thought to play a key role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Consumption of nutrients rich in phenolic antioxidants has been shown to be associated with attenuation of development of atherosclerosis. This study was undertaken to investigate the ex vivo effect of standardized ginger extract on the development of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient (E(0)) mice, in relation to plasma cholesterol levels and the resistance of their LDL to oxidation and aggregation. E(0) mice (n = 60; 6-wk-old) were divided into three groups of 20 and fed for 10 wk via their drinking water with the following: group i) placebo (control group), 1.1% alcohol and water (11 mL of alcohol in 1 L of water); group ii) 25 microg of ginger extract/d in 1.1% alcohol and water and group iii) 250 microg of ginger extract/day in 1.1% alcohol and water. Aortic atherosclerotic lesion areas were reduced 44% (P<0.01) in mice that consumed 250 microg of ginger extract/day. Consumption of 250 microg of ginger extract/day resulted in reductions (P<0.01) in plasma triglycerides and cholesterol (by 27 and 29%, respectively), in VLDL (by 36 and 53%, respectively) and in LDL (by 58 and 33%, respectively). These results were associated with a 76% reduction in cellular cholesterol biosynthesis rate in peritoneal macrophages derived from the E(0) mice that consumed the high dose of ginger extract for 10 wk (P<0.01). Furthermore, peritoneal macrophages harvested from E(0) mice after consumption of 25 or 250 microg of ginger extract/day had a lower (P<0.01) capacity to oxidize LDL (by 45 and by 60%, respectively), and to take up and degrade oxidized LDL (by 43 and 47%, respectively). Consumption of 250 microg of ginger extract/day also reduced (P<0.01) the basal level of LDL-associated lipid peroxides by 62%. In parallel, a 33% inhibition (P<0.01) in LDL aggregation (induced by vortexing) was obtained in mice fed ginger extract. We conclude that dietary consumption of ginger extract by E(0) mice significantly attenuates the development of atherosclerotic lesions. This antiatherogenic effect is associated with a significant reduction in plasma and LDL cholesterol levels and a significant reduction in the LDL basal oxidative state, as well as their susceptibility to oxidation and aggregation.

Isolation of novel glucosides related to gingerdiol from ginger and their antioxidative activities.:

Two novel glucosides of 6-gingerdiol were isolated from fresh ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Their structures were determined as 1-(4-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-3-methoxyphenyl)-3,5-dihydroxydecane (1) and 5-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-3-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)deca ne (2) by HRFAB-MS and NMR analyses, and the absolute configurations of both aglycons were identified as (3S,5S) by a comparison with synthetic compounds. After incubating these glucosides with acetone powder prepared from fresh ginger, they were confirmed to have been hydrolyzed to 6-gingerdiol by HPLC. This result suggests that these glucosides are the precursors or intermediates of 6-gingerdiol. To recognize their function, their antioxidative activities were investigated and compared to that of their aglycon, 6-gingerdiol, by a linoleic acid model system and by their DPPH radical-scavenging ability. Although 1 did not indicate any activity, 2 had as strong activity as the aglycon in both measurements.

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of bioactive principles in Zingiberis Rhizoma by means of high performance liquid chromatography and gas liquid chromatography. On the evaluation of Zingiberis Rhizoma and chemical change of constituents during Zingiberis Rhizoma processing:

As a continuing study on the evaluation of various Zingiberis Rhizoma and the chemical characterization of the processing, a quantitative method by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for 6, 8, 10-gingerol (1, 2, 3), 6,8-shogaol (4, 5), 6-dehydrogingerdione (6), and galanolactone (7) has been developed. By the use of this HPLC method, the contents of these compound in twenty kinds of Zingiberis Rhizoma [originating in China, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Japan (Shizuoka Prefecture)] and fresh ginger root cultivated in Shizuoka Prefecture were examined. It was found that Japanese Zingiberis Rhizoma and fresh ginger root contained 6-gingerol (1), 6-dehydrogingerdione (6), and galanolactone (7) as major constituents, whereas 7 was not detected in imported Zingiberis Rhizoma and 6 was detected in Vietnamese Zingiberis Rhizoma. Furthermore, the contents of 1 and 7 in fresh ginger root decreased remarkably during the processing procedure for Zingiberis Rhizoma. In addition, anti-ulcer sesquiterpene constituents in seven kinds of Zingiberis Rhizoma were analyzed by means of gas liquid chromatography (GLC).

Capsaicin-like effect of (6)-shogaol on substance P-containing primary afferents of rats: a possible mechanism of its analgesic action.:

The effects of (6)-shogaol, a pungent component of dried ginger with a capsaicin-like chemical structure, on the release of immunoreactive substance P from the spinal dorsal horn were examined by in vitro superfusion of the dorsal-half slices of the spinal cord of the rat. (6)-Shogaol (30 microM to 1 mM) increased dose-dependently the release of immunoreactive substance P. The maximum effect of (6)-shogaol was observed at a concentration of 100 microM and less than a half of the effect of 10 microM capsaicin. The effect of (6)-shogaol (100 microM) was attenuated in slices from rats with dorsal rhizotomy and abolished by elimination of calcium ions from the perfusion medium. Pretreatment with (6)-shogaol in vitro inhibited the capsaicin-evoked release of immunoreactive substance P. On the other hand, systemic administration of (6)-shogaol (160 mg/kg) produced antinociception in rats, with a peak effect between 15 and 30 min and a smaller dose of 80 mg/kg was without effect. Treatment of rats with (6)-shogaol, at a dose of 160 mg/kg but not at 80 mg/kg, for 20 min significantly decreased release of immunoreactive substance P, evoked by capsaicin (10 microM), from the slices of cord. These data suggest that (6)-shogaol shares the sites of action with capsaicin, on the terminals of substance P-containing primary afferents, to release of the neuropeptide and inhibit the release of substance P, by subsequent stimulation of the primary afferents. The latter action of (6)-shogaol might be relevant to its analgesic effect.

The anti-ulcer effect in rats of ginger constituents.:

The effects of ginger, a pungent stomachic natural medicine, on HCl/ethanol-induced gastric lesions in rats, were examined. The orally administered acetone extract at 1000 mg/kg and zingiberene, the main terpenoid from acetone extract, at 100 mg/kg significantly inhibited gastric lesions by 97.5 and 53.6%, respectively. 6-Gingerol, the pungent principle, at 100 mg/kg significantly inhibited gastric lesions by 54.5%. These results suggest that zingiberene, the terpenoid and 6-gingerol are important constituents in stomachic medications containing ginger.

Cholagogic effect of ginger and its active constituents.:

The effect of bile secretion in rats was examined in order to clarify the stomachic action of ginger and also to investigate its active constituents. The results showed that mainly the acetone extracts of ginger, which contain essential oils and pungent principles, caused an increase in the bile secretion. Further analyses for the active constituents of the acetone extracts through column chromatography indicated that [6]-gingerol and [10]-gingerol, which are the pungent principles, are mainly responsible for the cholagogic effect of ginger.

Etymology of ginger:

The English term ginger originates from Sanskrit sringavera (sringam=horn+vera=body), which was transformed to Latin gingiber and to Old French gingibre, which resulted in ginger in English. The German Ingwer was derived from the same origin, but lost its front sound.
ginger picture photo

Antiproliferative properties of Padma Lax and its components ginger and elecampane.:

Background: Padma Lax (PL) is a multi-component herbal laxative, derived from traditional Tibetan medicine. It has been used in the treatment of constipation dominant irritable bowel syndrome. Beyond its purgative and bowel-regulating properties we found it to exhibit antiproliferative properties. Materials and Methods: C6 tumor cells were incubated with either an ethanolic or aqueous extract of PL. Cell proliferation, cell cycle, percentage of apoptotic cells, caspase-3/-7 activity as well as mitochondrial membrane potential were determined. Results: Ethanolic extracts of PL inhibited cell proliferation in a dose- and time-dependent manner (half max concentration: 384.4 mug/ml after 48 h of incubation). Aqueous extracts were less effective. Ginger and elecampane were the active components of PL in respect to its antiproliferative action and were found to act synergistically. Supplementing the culture medium with polyamines could not override the cytostatic action of PL. Incubation of C6 cells with PL in the presence of catalase proved that the PL effect was specific and not due to oxidative stress. PL had no effects on the cell cycle at a low dose but arrested cells in G1 at high concentrations. Reduction of cell numbers was found to be due to apoptosis. The caspase- 3/-7 pathway was not involved in the PL-induced cell death. However, mitochondrial membrane potential was lost during the course of incubation with PL indicating a mitochondrial- but not caspase-mediated induction of apoptosis. Conclusion: PL exhibits antiproliferative properties which may be beneficial to prevent constipation-related cancer. This study may also contribute to a future development of a new herbal-based antiproliferative treatment.

The efficacy of ginger for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting: a meta-analysis.:

Objective: The aim of this study was to specifically determine the impact of a fixed dose of ginger administration, compared with placebo, on the 24-hour postoperative nausea and vomiting. Study Design: The design was a systematic review and metaanalysis of trials revealed by searches. Randomized controlled trials comparing ginger with placebo to prevent postoperative nausea and vomiting and postoperative vomiting from Medline, IPA, CINAHL, Cochrane CENTRAL, HealthStar, Current Contents, bibliographies of retrieved articles, contact of authors, and experts in the field. Two reviewers selected studies for inclusion and independently extracted data. Results: Five randomized trials including a total of 363 patients were pooled for analysis of preventing postoperative nausea and vomiting and postoperative vomiting. The summary relative risks of ginger for postoperative nausea and vomiting and postoperative vomiting were 0.69 (95% confidence interval 0.54 to 0.89) and 0.61 (95% confidence interval 0.45 to 0.84), respectively. Only one side effect, abdominal discomfort, was reported. Conclusions: This meta-analysis demonstrates that a fixed dose at least 1 g of ginger is more effective than placebo for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting and postoperative vomiting. Use of ginger is an effective means for reducing postoperative nausea and vomiting.

A comparison of the antimicrobial activity of garlic, ginger, carrot, and turmeric pastes against Escherichia coli O157:H7 in laboratory buffer and ground beef.:

The antimicrobial effects of garlic, ginger, carrot and turmeric pastes against Escherichia coli O157:H7 in laboratory buffer and model food system were investigated. Turmeric paste, fresh carrot, ginger and garlic pastes from roots, and commercial ginger and garlic paste were heated alone or with buffered peptone water (BPW) or ground beef at 70 degrees C for 7 min. All samples were inoculated with a three strain cocktail of overnight cultures of E. coli O157: H7 and stored at 4 degrees C and 8 degrees C for 2 weeks. Each paste exhibited different antimicrobial effects alone and in ground beef or BPW at 4 degrees C and 8 degrees C for 2 weeks. Commercial ginger paste and fresh garlic paste showed the strongest antimicrobial activity with complete inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 in the paste at 3 days at 4 degrees C and 8 degrees C. Carrot and turmeric pastes did not show any antimicrobial activity both at 4 degrees C and 8 degrees C. Commercial garlic showed antimicrobial activity at both 4 degrees C and 8 degrees C (about 1 log CFU/g reduction) in the paste. However, fresh ginger paste showed antimicrobial activity only at 8 degrees C. Only commercial ginger paste had antimicrobial activity in BPW at 4 degrees C for 2 weeks. However, commercial ginger paste showed antimicrobial activity in ground beef at 3 days and after (about 1-2 log CFU/g) compared to control samples at 8 degrees C for 2 weeks. Fresh garlic paste showed antimicrobial activity only in BPW (1.3 log CFU/g) at 8 degrees C. These results indicate that the antimicrobial activity of these pastes is decreased in ground beef and laboratory buffer.

Mode of action of gingerols and shogaols on 5-HT3 receptors: binding studies, cation uptake by the receptor channel and contraction of isolated guinea-pig ileum.:

Ginger (rhizomes of Zingiber officinale) has been shown to exert potent anti-emetic properties, but its mode of action has not yet been elucidated. Among its active constituents, [6]-, [8]- and [10]-gingerol as well as [6]-shogaol were shown in different in vivo studies to be at least partly responsible for the drug's anti-emetic properties. In an attempt to gain more insight into the mode of action of these compounds, three different in vitro models were used to investigate their effects on 5-HT(3) receptors (serotonin receptor subtype) in more detail: [(14)C]guanidinium influx into N1E-115 cells which express 5-HT(3) receptors, isotonic contractions of the isolated guinea-pig ileum and equilibrium competition binding studies using a radioactively labeled 5-HT(3) receptor antagonist ([(3)H]GR65630) (3-(5-methyl-1H-imidazol-4-yl)-1-(1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-propanone). All four compounds inhibited the [(14)C]guanidinium influx through 5-HT(3) receptor channels as well as contractions of the guinea-pig ileum induced by SR57227A ((4-amino)-(6-chloro-2-pyridyl)l-piperidine hydrochloride), a highly selective 5-HT(3) receptor agonist. Both effects were concentration-dependent, with the following order of potency for both models: [6]-shogaol> or =[8]-gingerol>[10]-gingerol> or =[6]-gingerol. All compounds showed also weak anticholinergic and antineurokininergic activities in the guinea-pig ileum (acetylcholine and substance P are mediators of the 5-HT(3) receptor effect). The vanilloid receptor did not seem to be involved derived from experiments using capsazepine. None of the tested ginger substances, however, was able to displace [(3)H]GR65630 from its binding site (5-HT(3) receptor) neither on intact N1E-115 cells nor on the purified membranes of HEK-293 cells over-expressing the h5-HT(3) receptor. It may be concluded that [6]-, [8]-, [10]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol exert their anti-emetic effect at least partly by acting on the 5-HT(3) receptor ion-channel complex, probably by binding to a modulatory site distinct from the serotonin binding site. This may include indirect effects via receptors in the signal cascade behind the 5-HT(3) receptor channel complex such as substance P receptors and muscarinic receptors; this needs further investigation since ginger is effective against motion sickness which is cured by some vanilloids and by anticholinergics such as scopolamine.

Cardiovascular effects of ginger aqueous extract and its phenolic constituents are mediated through multiple pathways.:

Ginger is a world known food plant which is equally reputed for its medicinal properties. We report here the hypotensive, endothelium-dependent and independent vasodilator and cardio-suppressant and stimulant effects of its aqueous extract (Zo.Cr). Zo.Cr, which tested positive for saponins, flavonoids, amines, alkaloids and terpenoids, induced a dose-dependent (3.0-10.0 mg/kg) fall in the arterial blood pressure (BP) of anaesthetized rats which was partially blocked by atropine (1 mg/kg). In isolated endothelium-intact rat aorta, Zo.Cr (0.01-5.0 mg/ml) relaxed the phenylephrine (1 microM)-induced contractions, effect partially blocked by atropine (1 microM). Zo.Cr inhibited the K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions and also shifted the Ca++ dose-response curves to the right, similar to verapamil, indicating Ca++ antagonist activity. An atropine-resistant and l-NAME-sensitive vasodilator activity was also noted from ginger phenolic constituents 6-, 8- and 10-gingerol, while 6-shogaol showed a mild vasodilator effect. In guinea-pig atria, Zo.Cr (0.1-5.0 mg/ml) inhibited the force and rate of atrial contractions. Pretreatment with atropine blocked the inhibitory effect and a stimulatory effect was unmasked which was resistant to propranolol and verapamil but sensitive to ryanodine, blocker of Ca++ release from intracellular stores. Later at doses >or=1.0 mg/ml, the extract completely suppressed the atrial tissue, effect resistant to glibenclamide, pyrilamine, aminophylline and L-NAME. These data indicate that the aqueous ginger extract lowers BP through a dual inhibitory effect mediated via stimulation of muscarinic receptors and blockade of Ca++ channels and this study provides sound mechanistic basis for the use of ginger in hypertension and palpitations.

Gelstat Migraine (sublingually administered feverfew and ginger compound) for acute treatment of migraine when administered during the mild pain phase.:

Background: Treatment of migraine headaches is often delayed due to assessing the potential severity of an evolving headache or anticipating unwanted consequences from prescription medication. Studies have demonstrated improved pain-free response when prescription treatments are taken during the mild headache phase of a migraine. This study was designed to evaluate the efficacy of an OTC product, GelStat Migraine, when taken in the early, mild pain phase of migraine. Material Methods: An open-label study enrolling 30 subjects, male and female, with a one-year history of migraine meeting IHS diagnostic criteria with or without aura, 2-8 migraines per month and < or = 15 headache days per month. Inclusion required having migraines that consistently started at mild and worsened to moderate or severe, if untreated, in at least 75% of attacks. Subjects also had to be able to distinguish migraine from non-migraine headaches and reliably identify migraine early in the course of an attack. One headache was treated in the mild pain phase with GelStat Migraine, a combination of feverfew and ginger. Results: 29 evaluable subjects completed the study, all treating at mild pain. Two hours after treatment, 48% were pain-free with 34% reporting a headache of only mild severity. 29% reported a recurrence within 24 hours. Side effects were minimal and not serious. 59% of subjects were satisfied with Gelstat Migraine therapy and 41% preferred GelStat Migraine or felt it was equal to their pre-study medication. Conclusions: GelStat Migraine is effective as a first line abortive treatment for migraine when initiated early during the mild headache phase.

Ginger--an herbal medicinal product with broad anti-inflammatory actions.:

The anti-inflammatory properties of ginger have been known and valued for centuries. During the past 25 years, many laboratories have provided scientific support for the long-held belief that ginger contains constituents with antiinflammatory properties. The original discovery of ginger's inhibitory effects on prostaglandin biosynthesis in the early 1970s has been repeatedly confirmed. This discovery identified ginger as an herbal medicinal product that shares pharmacological properties with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Ginger suppresses prostaglandin synthesis through inhibition of cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2. An important extension of this early work was the observation that ginger also suppresses leukotriene biosynthesis by inhibiting 5-lipoxygenase. This pharmacological property distinguishes ginger from nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. This discovery preceded the observation that dual inhibitors of cyclooxygenase and 5-lipoxygenase may have a better therapeutic profile and have fewer side effects than non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. The characterization of the pharmacological properties of ginger entered a new phase with the discovery that a ginger extract (EV.EXT.77) derived from Zingiber officinale (family Zingiberaceae) and Alpina galanga (family Zingiberaceae) inhibits the induction of several genes involved in the inflammatory response. These include genes encoding cytokines, chemokines, and the inducible enzyme cyclooxygenase-2. This discovery provided the first evidence that ginger modulates biochemical pathways activated in chronic inflammation. Identification of the molecular targets of individual ginger constituents provides an opportunity to optimize and standardize ginger products with respect to their effects on specific biomarkers of inflammation. Such preparations will be useful for studies in experimental animals and humans.

Challenges in herbal research: a randomized clinical trial to assess blinding with ginger.:

Objective: To assess methods to blind study participants to encapsulated ginger (Zingiber officinale). Design: A randomized double-blind placebo controlled trial. Subjects: Eighty healthy male and female volunteers. Outcome Measures: Whether participants can accurately determine if they receive a ginger or placebo capsule and a bottle filled with ginger or placebo capsules. Results: Forty-two subjects correctly identified the capsule they received. Of those who received placebo, over 82% correctly identified their capsule. Only 22.5% of those who received ginger correctly identified their capsule. The likelihood of guessing ginger between the groups was statistically similar (p<0.01). 65% correctly guessed which bottle they had received (p=0.0073). Participants receiving the bottle filled with ginger capsules successfully identified their bottle 75% of the time (p=0.0016) compared to the 55% of the placebo group (p=0.5). Conclusions: Volunteers cannot determine which type of individual capsule they receive but can distinguish a bottle filled with ginger capsules.

Chemopreventive efficacy of ginger, a naturally occurring anticarcinogen during the initiation, post-initiation stages of 1,2 dimethylhydrazine-induced colon cancer.:

Background: Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc) is a natural dietary component, which has antioxidant and anticarcinogenic properties. We investigated the effect of ginger on the initiation and post-initiation stages of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH)-induced colon carcinogenesis in male Wistar rats. Methods: Rats were given a weekly subcutaneous injection of DMH (20 mg/kg body weight) in the groin for 15 weeks. Ginger (50 mg/kg body weight/everyday p.o.) was given to the rats at the initiation, post-initiation stages of carcinogenesis. The activity of lipid peroxidation was studied by measuring the formation of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH) and conjugated dienes (CD), and the antioxidant status by measuring superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), glutathione reductase (GR), reduced glutathione (GSH), vitamins C, E, and A concentrations in the circulation of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced experimental colon cancer. Results: In the presence of a known colon carcinogen, DMH, plasma lipid peroxidation (TBARS, lipid hydroperoxides and conjugated dienes) and cancer incidence were significantly increased whereas enzymic (GPx, GST, GR, SOD and CAT) and non-enzymic antioxidant concentrations (GSH, vitamins C, E, and A) were decreased as compared to control rats. The number of tumors as well as the incidence of cancer was significantly decreased on treatment with ginger. In addition, ginger supplementation at the initiation stage and also at the post-initiation stages of carcinogenesis significantly reduced circulating lipid peroxidation and significantly enhanced the enzymic and non-enzymic antioxidants as compared to unsupplemented DMH-treated rats. Conclusions: Ginger supplementation suppresses colon carcinogenesis in the presence of the procarcinogen DMH.

;Commercially processed dry ginger (Zingiber officinale): composition and effects on LPS-stimulated PGE2 production.:

Using techniques previously employed to identify ginger constituents in fresh organically grown Hawaiian white and yellow ginger varieties, partially purified fractions derived from the silica gel column chromatography and HPLC of a methylene chloride extract of commercially processed dry ginger, Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae, which demonstrated remarkable anti-inflammatory activity, were investigated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. In all, 115 compounds were identified, 88 with retention times (R(t)) >21 min and 27 with <21 min. Of those 88 compounds, 45 were previously reported by us from fresh ginger, 12 are cited elsewhere in the literature and the rest (31) are new: methyl [8]-paradol, methyl [6]-isogingerol, methyl [4]-shogaol, [6]-isoshogaol, two 6-hydroxy-[n]-shogaols (n=8 and 10), 6-dehydro-[6]-gingerol, three 5-methoxy-[n]-gingerols (n=4, 8 and 10), 3-acetoxy-[4]-gingerdiol, 5-acetoxy-[6]-gingerdiol (stereoisomer), diacetoxy-[8]-gingerdiol, methyl diacetoxy-[8]-gingerdiol, 6-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-2-nonyl-2-hydroxytetrahydropyran, 3-acetoxydihydro-[6]-paradol methyl ether, 1-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-2-nonadecen-1-one and its methyl ether derivative, 1,7-bis-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-5-methoxyheptan-3-one, 1,7-bis-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-3-hydroxy-5-acetoxyheptane, acetoxy-3-dihydrodemethoxy-[6]-shogaol, 5-acetoxy-3-deoxy-[6]-gingerol, 1-hydroxy-[6]-paradol, (2E)-geranial acetals of [4]- and [6]-gingerdiols, (2Z)-neral acetal of [6]-gingerdiol, acetaldehyde acetal of [6]-gingerdiol, 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2,4-dehydro-6-decanone and the cyclic methyl orthoesters of [6]- and [10]-gingerdiols. Of the 27 R(t)<21 min compounds, we had found 5 from fresh ginger, 20 others were found elsewhere in the literature, and two are new: 5-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-pent-2-en-1-al and 5-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-3-hydroxy-1-pentanal. Most of the short R(t) compounds are probably formed by thermal degradation during GC (which mimics cooking) and/or commercial drying. The concentrations of gingerols, the major constituents of fresh ginger, were reduced slightly in dry ginger, while the concentrations of shogaols, the major gingerol dehydration products, increased.

Effectiveness and safety of ginger in the treatment of pregnancy-induced nausea and vomiting.:

Objective: Conventional antiemetics are burdened with the potential of teratogenic effects during the critical embryogenic period of pregnancy. Thus, a safe and effective medication would be a welcome addition to the therapeutic repertoire. This systematic review was aimed at assessing the evidence for or against the efficacy and safety of ginger (Zingiber officinale) therapy for nausea and vomiting during pregnancy. Data Sources: Systematic literature searches were conducted in 3 computerized databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library), and the reference lists of all papers located were checked for further relevant publications. Methods of Study Selection: For the evaluation of efficacy, only double-blind, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were included. All retrieved clinical data, including uncontrolled trials, case reports, observational studies, and RCTs, were included in the review of safety. TABULATION, INTEGRATION, AND RESULTS: Six double-blind RCTs with a total of 675 participants and a prospective observational cohort study (n = 187) met all inclusion criteria. The methodological quality of 4 of 5 RCTs was high. Four of the 6 RCTs (n = 246) showed superiority of ginger over placebo; the other 2 RCTs (n = 429) indicated that ginger was as effective as the reference drug (vitamin B6) in relieving the severity of nausea and vomiting episodes. The observational study retrieved and RCTs (including follow-up periods) showed the absence of significant side effects or adverse effects on pregnancy outcomes. There were no spontaneous or case reports of adverse events during ginger treatment in pregnancy. Conclusion: Ginger may be an effective treatment for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. However, more observational studies, with a larger sample size, are needed to confirm the encouraging preliminary data on ginger safety. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: I.

Effect of ginkgo and ginger on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects.:

AIM: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of two common herbal medicines, ginkgo and ginger, on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin and the independent effect of these herbs on clotting status. METHODS: This was an open label, three-way crossover randomized study in 12 healthy male subjects, who received a single 25 mg dose of warfarin alone or after 7 days pretreatment with recommended doses of ginkgo or ginger from herbal medicine products of known quality. Dosing with ginkgo or ginger was continued for 7 days after administration of the warfarin dose. Platelet aggregation, international normalized ratio (INR) of prothrombin time, warfarin enantiomer protein binding, warfarin enantiomer concentrations in plasma and S-7-hydroxywarfarin concentration in urine were measured. Statistical comparisons were made using anova and the 90% confidence intervals (CIs) of the ratio of log transformed parameters are reported. RESULTS: INR and platelet aggregation were not affected by administration of ginkgo or ginger alone. The mean (95% CI) apparent clearances of S-warfarin after warfarin alone, with ginkgo or ginger were 189 (167-210) ml h(-1), 200 (173-227) ml h(-1) and 201 (171-231) ml h(-1), respectively. The respective apparent clearances of R-warfarin were 127 (106-149) ml h(-1), 126 (111-141) ml h(-1) and 131 (106-156) ml h(-1). The mean ratio (90% CI) of apparent clearance for S-warfarin was 1.05 (0.98-1.21) and for R-warfarin was 1.00 (0.93-1.08) when coadministered with ginkgo. The mean ratio (90% CI) of AUC(0-168) of INR was 0.93 (0.81-1.05) when coadministered with ginkgo. The mean ratio (90% CI) of apparent clearance for S-warfarin was 1.05 (0.97-1.13) and for R-warfarin was 1.02 (0.95-1.10) when coadministered with ginger. The mean ratio (90% CI) of AUC(0-168) of INR was 1.01 (0.93-1.15) when coadministered with ginger. The mean ratio (90% CI) for S-7-hydroxywarfarin urinary excretion rate was 1.07 (0.85-1.32) for ginkgo treatment, and 1.00 (0.81-1.23) for ginger coadministration suggesting these herbs did not affect CYP2C9 activity. Ginkgo and ginger did not affect the apparent volumes of distribution or protein binding of either S-warfarin or R-warfarin. CONCLUSIONS: Ginkgo and ginger at recommended doses do not significantly affect clotting status, the pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects.

Ginger extract components suppress induction of chemokine expression in human synoviocytes.:

INTRODUCTION: Ginger has a long history of medicinal use, particularly as an anti-inflammatory agent for a wide variety of diseases such as arthritis. Suppression of inflammation in arthritis is attributed to suppression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines produced by synoviocytes, chondrocytes, and leukocytes. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to elucidate the effect of a combination ginger extract and its individual components on chemokine expression in human synoviocytes. METHODS: Human synoviocytes were incubated with 100 microg/mL combination ginger extract (GE) of Alpinia galanga (AG) and Zingiber officinale (ZO); AG extract alone; ZO extract alone; or control media, for 1 hour at 37 degrees C, 5% CO2. Cells were next activated with 1 ng/mL of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) for 1 hour to determine macrophage chemotactic factor (MCP-1) and interferon-gamma activated protein (IP-10) mRNA levels using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Secreted MCP-1 and IP-10 were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) following a 24 hour incubation period. RESULTS: The GE combination was consistently more effective in decreasing chemokine mRNA and chemokine secreted protein levels than its individual components ZO or AG. In comparison, ZO was more effective than AG in suppressing chemokine expression. CONCLUSION: The present study demonstrates that GE inhibits chemokine expression, and that the combination of ZO and AG components acts synergistically. This ginger formulation may be useful for suppressing inflammation due to arthritis.

Antiemetic effect of ginger in gynecologic oncology patients receiving cisplatin.:

To determine whether ginger had antiemetic effect in cisplatin-induced emesis, we conducted a randomized, double-blinded crossover study in 48 gynecologic cancer patients receiving cisplatin-based chemotherapy. Subjects were randomly allocated to regimen A or regimen B in their first cycle of the study. All patients received standard antiemetics in the first day of cisplatin administration. In regimen A, capsules of ginger root powder were given orally 1 g /day for 5 days, starting on the first day of chemotherapy. In regimen B, placebo was given on the first day and metoclopramide was given orally thereafter for 4 days. The patients were then crossed over to receive the other antiemetic regimen in their next cycle of chemotherapy. Among 43 evaluable patients who received both cycles of treatment, success in controls of nausea and emesis were not significantly different between the two regimens in both acute and delayed phases. Restlessness, as a side effect, occurred more often in metoclopramide arm compared to ginger arm (P=0.109). In conclusion, addition of ginger to standard antiemetic regimen has no advantage in reducing nausea or vomiting in acute phase of cisplatin-induced emesis. In delayed phase, ginger and metoclopramide have no statistically significant difference in efficacy.

Effects of diet, ginger root oil, and elevation on the mating competitiveness of male Mediterranean fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) from a mass-reared, genetic sexing strain in Guatemala.:

The release of sterile males is a key component of an areawide program to eradicate the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), from Guatemala and southern Mexico. The objective of our study was to assess the effects of adult diet, exposure to ginger root oil (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), and elevation on the mating competitiveness of the sterile males used in an areawide program. Sterile males were maintained on a protein-sugar (protein-fed) or a sugar-only (protein-deprived) diet and were exposed (for 4 h 1 d before testing) or not exposed to ginger root oil. In field-cage trials conducted at a high (1,500 m) and low (700 m) site, we monitored the influence of these treatments on the mating success of sterile males in competition with wild males (reared exclusively on the protein-sugar diet and without ginger root oil exposure) for wild females. Elevation and ginger root oil exposure had significant effects, with sterile males having higher mating success at the low-elevation site and ginger root oil-exposed males having greater success than ginger root oil-deprived males at both sites. Diet did not have a significant overall effect, and its influence varied with elevation (dietary protein seemed to provide an advantage at the high-elevation site but not at the low-elevation site). Possible implications of these findings for eradication programs against the Mediterranean fruit fly are discussed.

Anti-inflammatory effect of the hydralcoholic extract of Zingiber officinale rhizomes on rat paw and skin edema.:

Plant extracts have been used for centuries as a popular mode of treatment for several health disorders. Over the last ten years, the study of those extracts has attracted attention in different fields of the biological sciences. Ginger, the rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae), is a commom constituent of diet worldwide and it has been reported that its extracts present some pharmacological activities. Here we investigate the effects of the crude hydralcoholic extract of ginger rhizomes on the classical models of rat paw and skin edema. The carrageenan-, compound 48/80- or serotonin-induced rat paw edema were inhibited significantly by the intraperitoneal administration of alcoholic ginger extract. Ginger extract was also effective in inhibiting 48/80-induced rat skin edema at doses of 0.6 and 1.8 mg/site. Rat skin edema induced by substance P or bradikinin was not affected by treatment with Z. officinalle extract. The intraperitoneal administration of ginger extract (186 mg/kg(-1) body wt.) 1 h prior to serotonin injections, reduced significantly the serotonin-induced rat skin edema. Our results demonstrated that crude extract of Zingiber officinale was able to reduce rat paw and skin edema induced by carrageenan, 48/80 compound and serotonin. The antiedematogenic activity seems to be related, at least partially, to an antagonism of the serotonin receptor.

Anxiolytic and antiemetic activity of Zingiber officinale.:

The benzene fraction (BF) of a petroleum ether extract of dried rhizomes of ginger, which contained anticonvulsant principle(s), was screened for anxiolytic and antiemetic activity. Motor coordination was not affected by BF per se, but diazepam-induced motor incoordination was potentiated. Animals treated with BF showed decreased occupancy in the closed arm of the elevated plus maze suggesting the presence of anxiolytic principles in the BF. BF also blocked lithium sulphate-induced conditioned place aversion indicating antiemetic activity. These findings suggest that the fraction (BF) possesses anticonvulsant, anxiolytic and antiemetic activity.

Component of Zingiber officinale that improves the enhancement of small intestinal transport.:

6-Shogaol, a constituent of Zingiber officinale, improved carbachol-induced accelerated small intestinal transit in vivo, as well as improving longitudinal muscle contraction induced by low-frequency electrical stimulation of the isolated guinea pig small intestine in vitro. In addition, 6-shogaol ameliorated BaCl(2) -induced hyperperistalsis of the small intestine in vivo.

Effects of a ginger extract on knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis.:

Objective: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of a standardized and highly concentrated extract of 2 ginger species, Zingiber officinale and Alpinia galanga (EV.EXT 77), in patients with osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee. Methods: Two hundred sixty-one patients with OA of the knee and moderate-to-severe pain were enrolled in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter, parallel-group, 6-week study. After washout, patients received ginger extract or placebo twice daily, with acetaminophen allowed as rescue medication. The primary efficacy variable was the proportion of responders experiencing a reduction in "knee pain on standing," using an intent-to-treat analysis. A responder was defined by a reduction in pain of > or = 15 mm on a visual analog scale. Results: In the 247 evaluable patients, the percentage of responders experiencing a reduction in knee pain on standing was superior in the ginger extract group compared with the control group (63% versus 50%; P = 0.048). Analysis of the secondary efficacy variables revealed a consistently greater response in the ginger extract group compared with the control group, when analyzing mean values: reduction in knee pain on standing (24.5 mm versus 16.4 mm; P = 0.005), reduction in knee pain after walking 50 feet (15.1 mm versus 8.7 mm; P = 0.016), and reduction in the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities osteoarthritis composite index (12.9 mm versus 9.0 mm; P = 0.087). Change in global status and reduction in intake of rescue medication were numerically greater in the ginger extract group. Change in quality of life was equal in the 2 groups. Patients receiving ginger extract experienced more gastrointestinal (GI) adverse events than did the placebo group (59 patients versus 21 patients). GI adverse events were mostly mild. CONCLUSION: A highly purified and standardized ginger extract had a statistically significant effect on reducing symptoms of OA of the knee. This effect was moderate. There was a good safety profile, with mostly mild GI adverse events in the ginger extract group.

Ginger for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled trial.:

Objective: To determine the effectiveness of ginger for the treatment of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. Methods: Women with nausea and vomiting of pregnancy, who first attended an antenatal clinic at or before 17 weeks' gestation, were invited to participate in the study. During a 5-month period, 70 eligible women gave consent and were randomized in a double-masked design to receive either oral ginger 1 g per day or an identical placebo for 4 days. Subjects graded the severity of their nausea using visual analog scales and recorded the number of vomiting episodes in the previous 24 hours before treatment, and again during 4 consecutive days while taking treatment. At a follow-up visit 7 days later, five-item Likert scales were used to assess the severity of their symptoms. RESULTS: All participants except three in the placebo group remained in the study. The visual analog scores of posttherapy minus baseline nausea decreased significantly in the ginger group (2.1 +/- 1.9) compared with the placebo group (0.9 +/- 2.2, P =.014). The number of vomiting episodes also decreased significantly in the ginger group (1.4 +/- 1.3) compared with the placebo group (0.3 +/- 1.1, P <.001). Likert scales showed that 28 of 32 in the ginger group had improvement in nausea symptoms compared with 10 of 35 in the placebo group (P <.001). No adverse effect of ginger on pregnancy outcome was detected. CONCLUSION: Ginger is effective for relieving the severity of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy.

Effects of ginger on gastroduodenal motility.:

The effect of a ginger rhizome extract (2 x 100 mg) was studied on fasting and postprandial gastroduodenal motility with stationary manometry in 12 healthy volunteers. The results showed that: the interdigestive antral motility was significantly increased by ginger during phase III of the migrating motor complex; the volunteers also had a significantly increased motor response to a test meal in the corpus; a trend to an increased motor response during ginger treatment was seen in all other regions of interest. Oral ginger improves gastroduodenal motility in the fasting state and after a standard test meal.

Cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitory component from Zingiber officinale Roscoe.:

We previously reported on the isolation and identification of (E)-8 beta,17-epoxylabd-12-ene-15,16-dial (ZT) from ginger (rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae). In this paper, the pharmacological effects of ZT are reported. The experimental mouse hypercholesterolemia induced by Triton WR-1339 was treated after oral administration of ZT. In homogenated rat liver with ZT, cholesterol biosynthesis was decreased. In addition, the same activity was observed in the homogenated rat liver which was resected after the oral administration of ZT. According to the results of general pharmacological screening, no remarkable activity of ZT was observed except for an inhibitory effect on the cholesterol biosynthesis.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in rheumatism and musculoskeletal disorders.:

One of the features of inflammation is increased oxygenation of arachidonic acid which is metabolized by two enzymic pathways--the cyclooxygenase (CO) and the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO)--leading to the production of prostaglandins and leukotrienes respectively. Amongst the CO products, PGE2 and amongst the 5-LO products, LTB4 are considered important mediators of inflammation. More than 200 potential drugs ranging from non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, corticosteroids, gold salts, disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs, methotrexate, cyclosporine are being tested. None of the drugs has been found safe; all are known to produce from mild to serious side-effects. Ginger is described in Ayurvedic and Tibb systems of medicine to be useful in inflammation and rheumatism. In all 56 patients (28 with rheumatoid arthritis, 18 with osteoarthritis and 10 with muscular discomfort) used powdered ginger against their afflictions. Amongst the arthritis patients more than three-quarters experienced, to varying degrees, relief in pain and swelling. All the patients with muscular discomfort experienced relief in pain. None of the patients reported adverse effects during the period of ginger consumption which ranged from 3 months to 2.5 years. It is suggested that at least one of the mechanisms by which ginger shows its ameliorative effects could be related to inhibition of prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthesis, i.e. it works as a dual inhibitor of eicosanoid biosynthesis.
Ginger Extract.CAS.NO.000000-44-5.Gingerols 2.5%5%HPLC.CAS.NO:1391-73-7.M.F.Molecular Formula:C17 H32O4.Synonyms:5-Hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxycyclohexyl)decan-3-one, 58253-27-3, 6-Gingerol photo picture image img

Ginger Extract.CAS.NO.000000-44-5.Gingerols 2.5%5%HPLC.CAS.NO:1391-73-7.M.F.Molecular Formula:C17 H32O4.Synonyms:5-Hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxycyclohexyl)decan-3-one, 58253-27-3, 6-Gingerol photo picture image img

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  Scientific References:

  1.Research Update:Ginger and Its Constituents.
  2.Ginger Action and Uses.Ginger Extract.Gingerols.

Claims & Warning:

Claims: Information this web site presented is meant for Nutritional Benefit and as an educational starting point only, for use in maintenance and promotion good health in cooperation with a common knowledge base reference...Furthermore,it based solely on the traditional and historic use or legend of a given herb from the garden of Adonis. Although every effort has been made to ensure its accurate, please note that some info may be outdated by more recent scientific developments......

Pharmakon Warning: The order of knowledge is not the transparent order of forms and ideas,as one might be tempted retrospectively to interpret it; it is the antidote....(Dissemination,Plato's Pharmacy,II.The Ingredients:Phantasms,Festivals,and Paints;138cf. Jacques Derrida.).

And as it happens,the technique of imitation,along with the production of the simulacrum,has always been in Plato's eyes manifestly magical,thaumaturgical:......and the same things appear bent and straight to those who view them in water and out,or concave and convex,owing to similar errors of vision about colors, and there is obviously every confusion of this sort in our souls.And so scene painting (skiagraphia) in its exploitation of this weakness of four nature falls nothing short of witchcraft (thaumatopoia), and so do jugglery and many other such contrivances.(Republic X,602c-d;cf.also 607c).