Black Pepper,Black Pepper Seed,Piper nigrum,Piper:the Kind of spices,one of the oldest and the most popular spice in the world.

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   Botanical Data Info of Black Pepper:
 

 Botanical:Pepper (Piper nigrum L.)
 Order: Piperales
 Family:Piperaceae (pepper family).
 Genus: Piper
 Species: P. nigrum
 Binomial name:Piper nigrum
 PinYin:Hu Jiao
 Synonyms:Black Pepper. Piper (United States Pharmacopceia). Hei Hu Jiao.Bai Hu Jiao,Lv Hu Jiao.Black Pepper, Blanc Poivre, Kosho, Pepe,green peppercorns, Pepper, Pepper Extract, Pepper Plant, Peppercorn, Pfeffer, Pimenta, Pimienta, Piper, Poivre, Poivre Noir, White Pepper. English pepper, Lada hitan, black pepper (with cortex), white pepper (cortex removed), green peppercorns (green with cortex), black peppercorns, piper, pepper bark.
 Part Used:Dried unripe fruit.,Dried fruits, essential oil.
 Where to find it: It is a native of Java, Sumatra and Malabar.
 Flowering time: Summer. Astrology: Under the dominion of Mars.

 Aroma and Flavour of Black Pepper:Black pepper is used in almost all applications where spice is used, with exception of baked goods. It is used universally in sauces, gravies, processed meats, poultry, snack foods etc. Both black and white pepper are used in cuisine worldwide, at all stages of the cooking process and as a table condiment. White pepper has a distinguishably different flavour but is utilized to a lesser extent.
 Taste and Aroma:Black Pepper has a sharp, pungent aroma and flavor. White Pepper is hotter, less subtle and mildly fermented. Green Peppercorn is milder in flavor and has a fresh taste.It comforts and warms a cold stomach.There are three sorts - Black, White and Long. They are climbing twining tropical plants with white flowers, borne in catkins, and red berries.
 Modern uses: Pepper is a digestive stimulant and anti-flatulent remedy. It is also anti-bacterial and insecticidal. It is incorporated into pills or the powder is taken in doses Of 5-15 grains (325--975 rng).

 

 Botanical Data Info of Black Pepper:
 Habitata,Cultivation and Origin of Pepper:
 Black Pepper Production:
 Black Pepper:Description and Varieties
 History of Black Pepper and Medicinal Use:
 Table Black Peper,Coarse Black Pepper:
 Black Pepper Directions:Common use,healing qualities and cooking tips.
 Recipe of Black Pepper:
 Black Pepper:Phytochemicals and Constituents.
 Health Benefits,Medicinal Action and Uses of Black Pepper:
 Administration and Safety of Black Pepper:
 Nutrients of black pepper:
 Research Update: Black pepper or Piper nigrum L.:


   Habitata,Cultivation and Origin of Pepper:
 

 In South India wild, Native to southwestern India, pepper is now cultivated in tropical areas around the world.and in Cochin-China; also cultivated in East and West Indies, Malay Peninsula, Malay Archipelago, Siam, Malabar, etc.
 The fruit is harvested from plants at least 3 years old. Green peppercorns are picked unripe and pickled, black peppercorns are picked unripe and dried, red peppercorns are picked ripe and dried, and white peppercorns are picked ripe and soaked in water for 8 days before drying.
 

  Origin of Pepper or Black Pepper:

 Pepper refers to any of a great number of plants of the nightshade family, Solanaceae, notably Capsicum annuum L. (Sweet Pepper), Capsicum frutescens L.; and Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC. (Sichuan Pepper) of the family Rutaceae; extensively cultivated throughout tropical Asia and equatorial America for their edible, pungent fruits.

 Peppers, which have been found in prehistoric remains in Peru, were widely grown in Central and South America in pre-Columbian times. Pepper seeds were carried to Spain in 1493 and from there spread rapidly throughout Europe.

 The genus Capsicum comprises all the varied forms of fleshy-fruited peppers grown as herbaceous annuals¡Xthe red, green, and yellow peppers rich in vitamins A and C that are used in seasoning and as a vegetable food. Hot peppers, used as relishes, pickled, or ground into a fine powder for use as spices.

 In addition to the cherry (Cerasiforme group) and red cluster (Fasciculatum), these hot varieties, which are red when mature, include the tabasco (Conoides), which is commonly ground and mixed with vinegar to produce a hot sauce, and the long ¡§hot¡¨ chili and cayenne (Longum), often called capsicums.

 Cayenne pepper, said to have originated in Cayenne in French Guiana, is one of the spices derived from these peppers and is produced in many parts of the world.

 The mild bell or sweet peppers (Grossum) have larger, variously coloured but generally bell-shaped, furrowed, puffy fruits that are used in salads and in cooked dishes. These varieties are harvested when bright green in color¡Xbefore the appearance of red or yellow pigment¡Xabout 60¡V80 days after transplanting.

 Pepper plants are treated as tender summer annuals outside their native habitat. They are propagated by planting seed directly in the field or by transplanting seedlings started in greenhouses or hotbeds after six to ten weeks.

 Pepper is used in traditional Chinese medicine as a warming herb. In China, pepper is mainly produced in the provinces Hainan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, etc. Harvested at the end of autumn to spring of the next year when the fruit becomes red or dark green, it is dried in the sun, resulting in black pepper; or picked and reaped when the fruit turns red, soaked in water and dried in the sun after the pulp is rubbed away, making white pepper; then pounded for use when raw.

 Black pepper is native to Malabar, a region in the Western Coast of South India; today, this region belongs to the union state Kerala. Pepper is cultivated since millennia. The wild form has not yet been unambigously identified, but there are closely related pepper species in South India and Burma. While black and white pepper were already known in antiquity, but green pepper (and even more, red pepper) is a recent invention.
 Pepper reached South East Asia more than two thousand years ago and is grown in Malaysia and Indonesia since about that time. In the last decades of the 20.th century, pepper production increased dramatically as new plantations were founded in Thailand, Vietnam, China and Sri Lanka. In the New World, Brazil is the only important producer; pepper plantations there go back to the 1930s.

 

   Black Pepper Production:

 Today, the major commercial producers of pepper are India and Indonesia. The most important producers are India before Indonesia, which together account for about 50% of the whole production volume.

 In trade, the pepper grades are identified by their origin. The most important Indian grades are Malabar and Tellicherry (Thalassery). The Malabar grade is regular black pepper with a slightly greenish hue, while Tellicherry is a special product (see below). Both Indian black peppers, but especially the Tellicherry grade, are very aromatic and pungent. In the past, Malabar pepper was also traded under names like Goa or Aleppi. Cochin is the pepper trade center in India.
 

 In South East Asia, the most reputated proveniences for black pepper are Sarawak in insular Malaysia and Lampong from Sumatra/Indonesia. Both produce small-fruited black pepper that takes on a greyish colour during storage; both have a less-developed aroma, but Lampong pepper is pretty hot. Sarawak pepper is mild and often described fruity. Black pepper from other countries where it has been introced to more recently is named after the trade center (Bangkok, Saigon); these proveniences are less valued, as they vary in heat and lack the complex aroma found in Indian and (to lesser degree) Malesian cultivars.

 The most important source of white pepper is the small Indonesian island Bangka, south east of Sumatra. The peppercorns are named Muntok after the island's main port. Smaller amounts of white pepper are produced in Sarawak, which is particularily light-coloured; the best quality is known as Sarawak Cream Label. There is also Brazil white pepper, but it has a poorer flavour and is, therefore, less reputated in the international trade.

 Brazil produces black, white and green peppercorns; the pepper is grown along the Amazonas river in the state of Par¨¢, where the paracress comes from. Brazil almost holds a monopoly for green pepper as the original production in Madagascar has declined. Brazil black and white pepper are quite mild. All Brazil pepper is named after its main port, Bel¨¦m.

 

   Black Pepper:Description and Varieties

 A pinch of black pepper is added to almost every type of recipe imaginable. Once used as currency and presented to the gods as a sacred offering, it is fortunate that this most popular of spices is available throughout the year.

 Black pepper comes from the pepper plant, a smooth woody vine that can grow up to 33 feet in hot and humid tropical climates. They begin to bear small white clustered flowers after 3 to 4 years and develop into berries known as peppercorns. Ground peppercorns produce the spice we call pepper.
 

 Black peppercorns are made by picking the pepper berries when they are half ripe and just about to turn red. They are then left to dry which causes them to shrivel and become dark in color. Alternatively, green peppercorns are picked while still unripe and green in color, while white peppercorns are picked when very ripe and subsequently soaked in brine to remove their dark outer shell leaving just the white pepper seed.
 Pink peppercorns are actually from a completely different plant species (Schinus molle) that is related to ragweed.
 Black pepper is the most pungent and flavorful of all types of peppers and it is available as whole or cracked peppercorns or ground into powder.
 

  Varieties of pepper:

 Black pepper is produced from the still-green unripe berries of the pepper plant. The berries are cooked briefly in hot water, both to clean them and to prepare them for drying. The heat ruptures cell walls in the fruit, speeding the work of browning enzymes during drying. The berries are dried in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the fruit around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, wrinkled black layer. Once dried, the fruits are called black peppercorns.

 White pepper consists of the seed only, with the fruit removed. This is usually accomplished by allowing fully ripe berries to soak in water for about a week, during which the flesh of the fruit softens and decomposes. Rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit, and the naked seed is dried. Alternative processes are used for removing the outer fruit from the seed, including removal of the outer layer from black pepper produced from unripe berries.

 In the U.S., white pepper is often used in dishes like light-coloured sauces or mashed potatoes, where ground black pepper would visibly stand out. There is disagreement regarding which is generally spicier. They do have differing flavours due to the presence of certain compounds in the outer fruit layer of the berry that are not found in the seed.
 

 An example of ground black pepperGreen pepper, like black, is made from the unripe berries. Dried green peppercorns are treated in a manner that retains the green colour, such as treatment with sulphur dioxide or freeze-drying. Pickled peppercorns, also green, are unripe berries preserved in brine or vinegar. Fresh, unpreserved green pepper berries, largely unknown in the West, are used in some Asian cuisines, particularly Thai cuisine.Their flavor has been described as piquant and fresh, with a bright aroma.They decay quickly if not dried or preserved.

 A rarely seen product called pink pepper or red pepper consists of ripe red pepper berries preserved in brine and vinegar. Even more rarely seen, ripe red peppercorns can also be dried using the same colour-preserving techniques used to produce green pepper.Pink pepper from Piper nigrum is distinct from the more-common dried "pink peppercorns", which are the fruits of a plant from a different family, the Peruvian pepper tree, Schinus molle, and its relative the Brazilian pepper tree, Schinus terebinthifolius. In years past there was debate as to the health safety of pink peppercorns, which is mostly no longer an issue.[citation needed] Sichuan peppercorn is another "pepper" that is botanically unrelated to black pepper.

 Peppercorns are often categorised under a label describing their region or port of origin. Two well-known types come from India's Malabar Coast: Malabar pepper and Tellicherry pepper. Tellicherry is a higher-grade pepper, made from the largest, ripest 10% of berries from Malabar plants grown on Mount Tellicherry.Sarawak pepper is produced in the Malaysian portion of Borneo, and Lampong pepper on Indonesia's island of Sumatra. White Muntok pepper is another Indonesian product, from Bangka Island.
 

  Ethno-botanical information:

 Plant of Piper nigrum L:The plant is used in many Asian countries as a stimulant, for the treatment of colic, rheumatism, headache, diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, menstrual pains, removing excessive gas in system and increasing the flow of urine (Wee, 1992). Also used in folk medicine for stomach disorders and digestion problems, neuralgia, scabies. In Indian medicine, it is used in arthritis, asthma, fever, cough, catarrh, dysentery, dyspepsia, flatulence, haemorrhoids, hiccoughs, urethral discharge, and skin damage. In Chinese medicine, it is used for vomiting, diarrhea, gastric symptoms; homeopathically for irritation of mucous membrane and galactorrhea (Gruenwald et al, 2000). Heavy dose of pepper with wild bamboo shoots said to cause abortion (Duke and Ayensu, 1985). In Assam, a method of birth control includes Cissampelos pareira in combination with Piper nigrum, root of Mimosa pudica and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Tiwari et al, 1982).

 Piper nigrum Leaf:For urinary calculus. Used as a poultice for the treatment of headache (Duke and Ayensu, 1985).

 Fruits of Piper nigrum L:To remove excessive gas in system, increase flow of urine, treat colic, rheumatism, headache, diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, menstrual pains (Wee and Hsuan, 1990). White pepper for cholera, malaria, stomachache, and black pepper for abdominal fullness, adenitis, cancer, cholera, cold, colic, diarrhoea, dysentery, dysmenorrhea, dysuria, furuncles, headache, gravel, nausea, poisoning due to fish, mushrooms or shellfish (Duke and Ayensu, 1985).

 

   History of Black Pepper and Medicinal Use:

 History Region of Origin:Since the Roman times, Pepper has been the most important spice. The cities of Alexandria, Genoa, and Venice owed their economic success to Pepper. Three thousand year old Sanskrit literature mentions Pepper. It was one of the earliest items traded Asia and Europe. In 1101, victorious Genovese soldiers were each given two pounds of Pepper as a gift for their successful Palestinian conquest. In the Middle Ages, Europeans often used Pepper to pay rent, dowries, and taxes, and Shakespeare mentions Pepper in his plays. The need for Pepper inspired Spanish exploration and spice trade in the 15th century.

 Black pepper (Piper nigrum), the king of spices, is one of the oldest and the most popular spice in the world. It is a perennial, climbing vine indigenous to the Malabar Coast of India. The hotly pungent spice made from its berries is one of the earliest spices known and is probably the most widely used spice in the world today. It was mentioned as far back as 1000 BC in ancient Sanskrit literature. In early historic times black pepper was widely cultivated in the tropics of Southeast Asia, where it became an important article of overland trade between India and Europe. It became a medium of exchange, and tributes were levied in black pepper in ancient Greece and Rome. In the Middle Ages the Venetian and the Genoese became the main distributors, their virtual monopoly of the trade helping to instigate the search for an eastern sea route. The name pepper comes from the Sanskrit word pippali meaning berry.

 Native to India, pepper has played a very important role throughout history and has been a prized spice since ancient times. Since ancient Greece, pepper has held such high prestige that it was not only used as a seasoning but as a currency and a sacred offering. Pepper was used to both honor the gods and to pay taxes and ransoms. During the fall of ancient Rome, the invading barbarians were even honored by being given black pepper. Additionally, in the Middle Ages the wealth of a man was oftentimes measured by his stockpile of pepper.

 Black pepper, grown in Southern India since more than two thousand years, has always been much valued all over the world. After Alexander the Great had warred upon Central Asia, and indeed even reached India (4.th century BC), new trading routes were established that brought, for the very first time, pepper into the West. Within short time, pepper's growing popularity made it a most important item of commerce. Soon, arabic traders established a pepper monopoly and transferred the spice via the spice route through the Arab peninsular and Egypt to their European customers, whom they denied any knowledge about the actual origin of pepper.
 

 Beginning in 327 B.C., when Alexander the Great invaded India and discovered the pleasures of well-seasoned food, wars have been fought, kingdoms overthrown, unknown oceans braved, and continents discovered-all for the sake of the shriveled, beadlike fruits known as peppercorns. Attila the Hun, holding all of Rome hostage, demanded 3,000 pounds of them as tribute. Throughout medieval Europe, pepper was commonly traded, ounce for ounce, for gold. In 1488, in search of a water route to the spice markets of India, Bartholomeu Dias first sailed the raging waters around Africa's Cape of Good Hope. Four years later, looking for an easier route to the same markets, Columbus landed in the New World. In the centuries that followed, European nations vied viciously with each other in colonizing tropical lands and trying to corner the spice market.

 In spite of its astronomical price, pepper has been much used by the Romans (see Silphion on Roman cuisine) and became, in the Early Middle Ages, a status symbol of fine cookery. At this time, the Italian town of Venezia had monopolized trade with the Arabs to the same extent as the Arabs theirs with the Indian producers. Due to this double monopoly, comparatively few cooks in Europe could afford pepper at all; but when Europe's economical situation stabilized in the 15.th century, increasing demand for pepper led to the Age of Exploration. European sailors then tried to reach India and to obtain the spice directly from the producers, bypassing both the Arab and the Venetian monopolists.

 At the end of the 15.th century, Portuguese seafarers changed the medieval view of the world: In 1487, Bartholomeu Diaz surrounded the Cape of Good Hope, thereby proving that Africa was not an impregnable obstacle on the Way to the East; only eleven years later, his countryman Vasco da Gama reached India, founded several Portuguese outposts and established permanent trade relations to local rulers. From this moment on, Lisboa, not Venezia, was the spice metropolis of Europe; of course, prices were not reduced but the profit just shifted to another country (100 years later, profits shifted again, this time to Amsterdam). Portugal's colonies in South and Southeast Asia persisted until the second half of the 20.th century, even after the spice business had been lost to England and the Netherlands

 In the meantime, the Spaniards also tried their luck in seafaring: Cristoforo Colombo, an Italian who found support for his unconventional plans at the Spanish court, discovered what he had not searched for in 1492 and again eleven years later Vasco N¨²?ez de Balboa crossed the American continent at the isthmus of Panam¨¢, thereby reaching the Pacific ocean. Consequently, it was also a Spanish enterprise to explore this new ocean and thereby to circumvent the earth: Fern?o de Magalh?es, Portuguese by birth, is usually given credit for this task, although he himself did not survive the journey, but was slain in a conflict with natives of the Philippines. After all, Spanish success was poor in Asia (the Philippines remained the only Spanish colony in the East), and although the larger part of America quickly fell under Spanish dominion, Spain could never assume a significant r?le in the spice trade, allspice and vanilla being the only profitable spices from the New World.

 The reason that pepper was so cherished is that it served important culinary purposes. Not only could its pungency spice up otherwise bland foods, but it could disguise a food¡¯s lack of freshness, the latter being an especially important quality in the times before efficient means of preservation.

 Pepper became an important spice that catalyzed much of the spice trade. This not only led to exploration of many undiscovered lands, but also to the development of major merchant cities in Europe and the Middle East.
 

  Pepper as a medicine:

 Like all eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a medicine. Long pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used.

 Black peppercorns figure in remedies in Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani medicine in India. The 5th century Syriac Book of Medicines prescribes pepper (or perhaps long pepper) for such illnesses as constipation, diarrhea, earache, gangrene, heart disease, hernia, hoarseness, indigestion, insect bites, insomnia, joint pain, liver problems, lung disease, oral abscesses, sunburn, tooth decay, and toothaches.[20] Various sources from the 5th century onward also recommend pepper to treat eye problems, often by applying salves or poultices made with pepper directly to the eye. There is no current medical evidence that any of these treatments has any benefit; pepper applied directly to the eye would be quite uncomfortable and possibly damaging.

 Pepper has long been believed to cause sneezing; this is still believed true today. Some sources say that piperine irritates the nostrils, causing the sneezing;some say that it is just the effect of the fine dust in ground pepper, and some say that pepper is not in fact a very effective sneeze-producer at all. Few if any controlled studies have been carried out to answer the question.

 Pepper is eliminated from the diet of patients having abdominal surgery and ulcers because of its irritating effect upon the intestines, being replaced by what is referred to as a bland diet.Pepper is sometimes used to stop light bleeding in restaurant kitchens.

 

   Table Black Peper,Coarse Black Pepper:

  Table Black Peper:

 Ground Black Pepper: Due to modern technology, a tremendous amount of research and product development our ground black pepper has all the flavor of black pepper ground fresh at the table.

 Process: The fresh grinding of the black pepper is one of the most important steps to impart the goodness of our newly developed product. Fresh Grinding is only one of the many many steps and natural processes before it is ready to ship with its full flavor intact. Although the processes are kept as highly regarded secrets an overview follows. Starting out with four processing steps and four quality control checks before grinding to assure only the best and purest black pepper. Next four natural processing steps (Other companies for speed do only one which destroys the flavor) along with four more quality control checks. The next four very important steps are taken in packaging to preserve the Natural punch of the freshly ground black pepper along with four more quality control checks.

 Flavor Many people believe our ground black pepper is five times more potent however we only guarantee it to be three times more tasteful than the typical quality available elsewhere.

 Natural: This black pepper is not spiked with anything to make it stronger like so many products are today. It is just our process which makes it so much better. It is no longer necessary to grind your own black pepper to get the true black pepper punch. You may find our black pepper stronger than what you grind yourself as the quality of the peppercorns is also an important factor. Order Table Black Pepper
 


  Coarse Black Pepper:

 Use: Often used in meat processing to help preserve the meat while curing.
 Process: We grind this coarse and sift out all the fines to produce a uniform coarse ground black pepper.
 Freshness: It is ground fresh and packaged the same day in special packaging to keep the flavors.

 Flavor: Many people have learned that the taste of coarse black pepper is stronger than ground black pepper. This is true due to the blending of table grade pepper (by other manufacturers) with other products, the flavors leaving the smaller grind product faster and the loss of flavor due to heat in grinding (most commercial ground black pepper).


   Black Pepper Directions:Common use,healing qualities and cooking tips

 1. Use in Soups
 2. Use in salads
 3. Use in bean dishes
 4. Complements tomato sauces
 5. Pepper is a universal table condiment
 6. Pepper is wonderful in plain yogurt or sour cream topper
 7. Try whole peppercorns in rice, soups, stews and fresh fruit compotes.
 8. Sprinkle over baked fish, baked potato, chicken, chowders, cream soups, and tomato and egg dishes
 9.Other Uses of Black Pepper:

 Orally, Hu Jiao/Black pepper is used for stomach upset, bronchitis, and cancer. White pepper is used orally for stomach upset, malaria, cholera, and cancer.
 Topically, Hu Jiao/Black pepper is used for treating neuralgia and scabies. Black and white pepper are also used topically as a counterirritant for pain.
 In foods and beverages, black pepper, white pepper, and pepper oil are used as flavoring agents.
 Pungent and aromatic:The pungency is strongest in white pepper and weakest in green pepper, while black and green pepper are more aromatic than the white one.
 

  Notes:Below are other healing qualities that black pepper is known or reputed to have

 It costly as pepper the Dutch phrase is still valid today. The Arabs, who introduced Europe to the exotic spices, controlled the spice trade and sold a pound of ginger for as much as a full-grown sheep. The European countries vied with each other to find an alternate route to India and the Spice Islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Bali, the Moluccas and Celebes. The pepper we take for granted today was a precious commodity ?men have fought and died for it. Alaric the Goth demanded it as ransom when he besieged Rome and English tenants in the Middle Ages were forced to pay rent in this commodity.

  Black pepper induces sweating, which consequently cools down the body and relieves feverish symptoms.
  Black pepper is useful for those with poor circulation.
  It is said to promote mental clarity, which is useful when studying.
  It can help clear up colds, viral infections and flu when prepared in a tea.
  Black pepper helps to prevent gas and flatulence.
  It induces urination, which is good when the kidneys are not functioning properly.
  Black pepper is a powerful anti-oxidant.
  It is antibacterial, which was useful for meat preservation before the time of refrigerators.
  Black pepper helps to break down and digest fats and meat proteins much more easily, as it induces the production of saliva and gastric juices needed for digestion in the stomach.
  Black pepper is a good source of manganese and iron, which are important for the body to function correctly.
  Components of black pepper are often added to mouthwashes and gargles used to treat sore throats.
  Black pepper is a stimulant that can stimulate various parts of the body such as the heart, kidneys, circulation and the stomach.
  When foods are eaten with black pepper, the body is able to absorb valuable vitamins and nutrients from the food much easier.
  Black pepper has been used to treat fatigue and tiredness.
  It stimulates the appetite and has been used to treat anorexics and people with eating disorders.
  A strong black pepper and mint tea will help clear chest and lung infections and bring up unwanted mucous and phlegm.

  Tips of how to use black pepper in your cooking:

  Add to salad dressings with salt, olive oil and cider vinegar.
  Add to omelettes, egg mayonnaise and other cheese and egg dishes.
  Black pepper can be added to strawberries or pineapple.
  It can be added to soups, stocks, sauces, marinades and stews.
  Use to flavour homemade hamburgers, rissoles and sausages.
  Use to rub onto meats, poultry and fish before roasting or cooking.
  Use to make pepper sauce.
  Add to biscuit mixtures for spicy sweet biscuits.
  Season seafood with black pepper.
  Add to mashed potato.
  Use to flavour dips, salsas and cold sauces.

 Tasting Notes: These uniform smaller black peppercorns from Sumatra have a nice salty, pungent aroma. Smokey, warming and penetrating.

 Culinary Usage: Pepper is best ground directly on to food. With hot food it is best to add pepper well towards the end of the cooking process, to preserve its aroma. White pepper is used in white sauces rather than black pepper, which would give the sauce a speckled appearance. Green peppercorns can be mashed with garlic, cinnamon or to make a spiced butter or with cream to make a fresh and attractive sauce for fish. Pink peppercorns are called for in a variety of dishes, from poultry to vegetables and fish.

 

   Recipe of Black Pepper:

  Recipe of Black Pepper:

 The use of black pepper in vegetables and food helps digestion and creates a good taste.

 Black pepper is one of the earliest known spices. Its essential oil is a warm, spicy fresh aroma. It blends well with rose, rosemary, sandalwood, etc. Blending with certain oils creates interesting effects - black pepper and ylang-ylang blend to create the aroma of carnation.
 Traditionally black pepper is used in the food industry, in liquors and beverages, in the treatment of arthritis, rheumatic pains, sprains, stiffness, neuralgia, infections and in perfume blends.
 It has very high anti-oxidant properties. It has been considered a "foremost detoxifier" and a powerful factor in anti-ageing. It improves blood circulation and lowers blood pressure. It has been used to treat flatulence, anemia, colic, constipation, diarrhea, heartburn, indigestion and nausea. It may be a potent factor in lowering LDL (bad cholesterol) and may reduce the risk of heart attacks.

 In certain formulations, black pepper may be considered as an essential ingredient together with extracts of Neem. Studies have confirmed that dosages of Neem extract decreased plasma total cholesterol, LDL, triglyceride level and C-reactive protein in rats.

 Another significant use of black pepper is as an essential ingredient in small quantities together with rose, rosemary and sandalwood to treat some forms of impotence or improve sperm count, uterine disorders (including health of the epithelial lining), leucorrhea, and irregular menstruation. Black pepper is an acknowledged aphrodisiac. Rose and sandalwood are also known aphrodisiacs.

 It is interesting to note that black pepper is an analgesic, anti-toxic, anti-microbial, antispasmodic, and anti-bacterial. Aromas of rose, rosemary and sandalwood also have anti-bacterial. Aromas of rose, rosemary and sandalwood also have anti- bacterial and antiseptic properties and have been used to treat coughs, bronchitis, sore throat, etc. Their combination with black pepper would be an interesting subject matter for research in treating infections as well as in anti-ageing formulations.
 

  Black Pepper Oil:

 Due to their rich aroma and fragrance, essential oils have been used since ancient times for their therapeutic and healing properties. Today, the art of using essential oils to promote health and well-being is called Aromatherapy.

 

   Black Pepper:Phytochemicals and Constituents.

  Black Pepper Constituents:

 piperitone, C₁₀H₁₆O; piperine, C₁₇H₁₉NO₃, 3.15%~4.82%.
 Black pepper is an excellent source of manganese, a very good source of iron and vitamin K, and a good source of dietary fiber.
 Piperine, which is identical in composition to morphia, volatile oil, a resin called Chavicin. Its medicinal activities depends mainly on its pungent resin and volatile oil, which is colourless, turning yellow with age, with a strong odour, and not so acrid a taste as the peppercorn; it also contains starch, cellulose and colouring.
 

  Main constituents:

 Black pepper contains about 3% essential oil, whose aroma is dominated (max. 80%) by monoterpenes hydrocarbons: sabinene, beta-pinene, limonene, furthermore terpinene, alpha-pinene, myrcene, delta3-carene and monoterpene derivatives (borneol, carvone, carvacrol, 1,8-cineol, linalool). Sesquiterpenes make up about 20% of the essential oil: beta-caryophyllene, humulene,beta-bisabolone and caryophyllene oxide and ketone. Phenylether (eugenol, myristicin, safrole) are found in traces. Loss of monoterpenes due to bad storage conditions (especially for ground pepper) should be avoided.
 
 The most importants odorants organoleptically in black pepper are linalool, alpha-phellandrene, limonene, myrcene and alpha-pinene; furthermore, branched-chain aldehydes were found (3-methylbutanal, methylpropanal). The musty flavour of old pepper is attributed to the formation of heterocyclic compounds (2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine, 2,3-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine) in concentrations of about 1 ppb. (Eur. Food Res. Technol., 209, 16, 1999)

 The essential oil of white pepper has received less attention; the content of essential oil is lower (1%), and the most abundant compounds are monoterpene hydrocarbons: limonene, beta-pinene, alpha-pinene and alpha-phellandrene. Organoleptically most important are linalool (although ocurring as a minor component), limonene, alpha-pinene and phenylpropanoids (eugenol, piperonal); furthermore, short-chain aldehydes and carboxylic acids have been found important. In overstored white pepper, scatole is formed (2 ppm) and imparts an unpleasant, faecal flavour. (Eur. Food Res. Technol., 209, 27, 1999).
 

 The pungent principle in pepper is an alkaloid-analog compound, piperine; it is the amide of 5-(2,4-dioxymethylene-phenyl)-hexa-2,4-dienoic acid (piperinic acid) with azinane (piperidine); only the trans,trans conformer contributes to pepper's pungency. Several piperine-analogs have been isolated from black pepper where the acid carbon backbone is partially hydrogenated (piperanine) or two carbon atoms longer (piperettine); amides of piperinic acid with pyrrolidine (piperyline) or isobutylamine (piperlongumine) have also been isolated. Total content of piperine-analogs in black pepper is about 5%.

 Black pepper contains a volatile oil (including beta-bisabolene, camphene, beta-caryophyllene, and many other terpenes and sesquiterpenes), up to 9% alkaloids (especially piperine, largely responsible for the herb's acrid taste), about 11 % proteins, and small amounts of Minerals. White pepper contains very little volatile oil.

 

  Other content:

 Other Constituents of Black pepper:chavicine;piperamine;piperyline;pipenoleine A;pipenoleine B;pipenoleine C;pipercide;dihydropipercide;piperamide-A5:2(E,E);piperamide-C5:1(2E);piperamide-C7:1(6E);piperamide-C7:2(2E,6E);piperamide-C9:1(8E);piperamide-C9:2(2E,8E);piperamide-C9:3(2E,4E,8E);1-[(2E,4E)-2,4-Decadienoyl] pyrrolidine;1-[(2E,4E)-2,4-Dodecadienoyl]pyrr-olidine;piperamide-B9:3(2E,4E,8E);piperamide-B11:3(2E,4E,10E);piperamide-C5:2(E,F);piperamide-A7:3(E,E,E);piperamide-B13:3(2E,4E,12E);piperamide-A9:1(8E).
 Bioantioxidant: N-trans-lerulogltyramine; N-trans-femloylperidine.
 3,4-dihydroxyph-enylethanol glycoside; O-diphenol oxidase;
 Violate oil(1.2%~2.6% in black pepper fruit;0.8% in white pepper fruit): pipperonal; dihydrcarveol; caryophyllene;cryptone; cis-p-2-menthen-1-ol; cis-p-2,8-menthadien-l-ol; transpinocarrol.
 Volatile Oil of pepper root mainly contains trans-caryophylene,about 51.20%.
 

 Black pepper is a tropical twining plant from southern India. At one time Goa was the major exporter, but now black pepper is grown in all South-East Asia. The photo on the left shows a pepper plantation in Malaysia. The small fruits are green at first, then red, and black at last. When the half-ripened fruits are harvested and dried, 'black pepper' is obtained, with the dried, wrinkled skin (flesh) surrounding the seeds. When the ripe fruits are harvested and the skin removed, the naked seeds or 'white pepper' is obtained. The unripe, green peppers may be pickled in brine or vinegar. The pepper seeds contain a volatile oil and the non-volatile compound piperine, the latter being responsible for the burning effect on the mucous membranes.

 Pepper oil recently has had a revival in perfumery. It is obtained by steam distillation of the crushed seeds and has an intensely woody, fresh and piquant odour, especially popular in masculine perfumes. Pepper oil is mainly composed of cyclic monoterpenes with 3-carene as the major component (around 35 %). Moreover, a number of hitherto unidentified sesquiterpenes probably contribute to its character. The spicy-aromatic and musky men's perfume Extreme Polo Sport (Ralph Lauren 1998) uses as much as 6 % pepper oil.

 The genus Piper has many members, several of which are utilized, e.g. long pepper, cubeb pepper, betel pepper, ashanti pepper and kava.
 Etymology: Lat. piper, from Sanskrit pippali. 'Pepper' has been used figuratively meaning 'energy', as in 'pep talk'. Several non-related species used as spices are also called peppers, e.g. Chile pepper, Cayenne pepper, pink pepper, Sichuan pepper, Tasmanian pepper.
 

  New amide alkaloids from the roots of Piper nigrum:

 Seven new amide alkaloids, named N-isobutyl-4-hexanoyl-4-hydroxypyrrolidin-1-one(1), (+/-)-erythro-1-(1-oxo-4,5-dihydroxy-2E-decaenyl)piperidine (2),(+/-)-threo-1-(1- oxo-4,5-dihydroxy-2E-decaenyl)piperidine (3),(+/-)-threo-N-isobutyl-4,5-dihydroxy-2E-octaenamide (4),1-(1,6-dioxo-2E,4E-decadienyl)piperidine (5),1-[1-oxo-3(3,4-methylenedioxy-5-methoxyphenyl)-2Z-propenyl]piperidine (6), and 1-[1-oxo-5(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2Z,4E-pentadienyl]pyrrolidine (7), were isolated from the roots of Piper nigrum, together with 32 known amides.

 

   Health Benefits,Medicinal Action and Uses of Black Pepper:

  Improve Digestion and Promote Intestinal Health:

 Taste buds Stimulator:Black pepper (Piper nigrum)stimulates the taste buds in such a way that an alert is sent to to the stomach to increase hydrochloric acid secretion, thereby improving digestion. Hydrochloric acid is necessary for the digestion of proteins and other food components in the stomach. When the body's production of hydrochloric acid is insufficient, food may sit in the stomach for an extended period of time, leading to heartburn or indigestion, or it may pass into the intestines, where it can be used as a food source for unfriendly gut bacteria, whose activities produce gas, irritation, and/or diarrhea or constipation.

 Problems with digestion are increasing in frequency, and black pepper seems to be effective in improving the digestion, probably due to the way in which black pepper stimulates the taste buds. This stimulation of the taste buds notifies the stomach to increase its secretion of hydrochloric acid, improving the digestion of food once it reaches the stomach. Insufficient production of stomach acid can lead to heartburn, indigestion, and other eating problems. Black pepper may help to alleviate this dilemmas.

 In addition, black pepper is known to reduce the formation of intestinal gas, thus providing a natural solution to an embarrassing problem. This ability is most likely also the result of the stimulation of hydrochloric acid production.

 Black pepper has also been shown to have significant antioxidant and antibacterial properties, which are important for fighting disease and maintaining overall good health.

  Carminitive:

 Black pepper has long been recognized as a carminitive, (a substance that helps prevent the formation of intestinal gas), a property likely due to its beneficial effect of stimulating hydrochloric acid production. In addition, black pepper has diaphoretic (promotes sweating), and diuretic (promotes urination) properties.

  Antioxidant and Antibacterial effects:

 Black pepper has demonstrated impressive antioxidant and antibacterial effects--yet another way in which this wonderful seasoning promotes the health of the digestive tract. And not only does black pepper help you derive the most benefit from your food, the outer layer of the peppercorn stimulates the breakdown of fat cells, keeping you slim while giving you energy to burn.
 

  Medicinal Action and Uses:

 Aromatic, stimulant, carminative; is said to possess febrifuge properties. Its action as a stimulant is specially evident on the mucous membrane of the rectum, and so is good for constipation, also on the urinary organs; externally it is a rubefacient, useful in relaxed conditions of the rectum when prolapsed; sometimes used in place of cubebs for gonorrhoea; given in combination with aperients to facilitate their action, and to prevent griping. As a gargle it is valued for relaxed uvula, paralysis of the tongue. On account of its stimulant action it aids digestion and is specially useful in atonic dyspepsia and torbid condition of the stomach. It will correct flatulence and nausea. It has also been used in vertigo, paralytic and arthritic disorders. It is sometimes added to quinine when the stomach will not respond to quinine alone. It has also been advised in diarrhoea, cholera, scarlatina, and in solution for a wash for tinea capititis. Piperine should not be combined with astringents, as it renders them inert. Black pepper also helps prevent the formation of intestinal gas, promotes urination, and promotes sweating. It is full of manganese, and it also has a good amount of iron and dietary fiber, as well.

 Black pepper's aromatic, slightly musty odor comes from the volatile oils found largely in the flesh and skin; its pungent bite comes from the alkaloids- piperine and piperidine-and resins found mostly in the seeds. The oils go into perfumes and flavorings. The searing substances have served many purposes: they have gone into liniments and gargles; they have been used as carminatives, reducing stomach and intestinal gas; and they have been found to stimulate the activity of the heart and kidneys. Piperine is also an effective insectide against houseflies, and gardeners use pepper sprays against several kinds of pests.

 Appetite Stimulants: Black pepper has long been recognized as a stimulant to appetite as well as an aid in the relief of nausea. In India it is being used since time immemorial as a medicine for a number of health problems.

 Medicinal Properties :The main flavor is from piperine, but other essential oils, including terpenes, contribute to the aroma. Its alkaloids include the pungent tasting chavicine and piperidine.Alleviates hemorrhoids,Alleviates gas,Alleviates constipation,Alleviates loss of appetite,Improves digestion,Promotes sweating,Promotes urination,Anti-bacterial effect,Anti-oxidant effect,Stimulates the breakdown of fat cells.
 

  Traditional Ethnic of Black Pepper:

 Pepper is a universal table condiment used to flavor all types of dishes in cuisines worldwide. It's commonly used in stocks, pickling, and sausages.
 Warms the middle-jiao and keeps the adverse qi flowing downward, clears away phlegm and toxic materials.
 Due to its hot nature, pepper is good for expelling evil cold and warming up the body interior, especially when cold phlegm accumulates and stagnates in the body.
 Pepper is also a stomachic when one's stomach suffers a cold invasion and is in need of warming. It also relieves pain, sends down adversely rising qi, as well as yields some antipyretic (reduces fever) action.
 When used externally, it can treat skin and external diseases, poisonous snake or dog bites, and can also be used to remove poisonous quality of food.

  Culinary use of Black Pepper:

 It is used in processed meats and in applications where dark specking is not desired. Black pepper is added to fruit cakes and gingerbread and is also used as a light seasoning on fresh fruit. Black pepper oleoresin is also used for similar purposes.

  Medicinal virtues of Black Pepper:

 It dissolves wind in the stomach or bowels, provokes urine, helps the cough and other chest diseases and stirs up the appetite. The White Pepper, made from the ripe fruits after the rind has been removed, is sharper and more arornatic than the Black, which is made from the unripe berries. The White is used for agues, to warm the stomach, before the coming of the fit. All can be used against quinsy, being mixed with honey and taker inwardly or applied outwardly to disperse the kernels in the throat.
 

  Pepper Applications:

  1. To treat cold pain in the abdomen, vomiting and diarrhea due to stomach-cold:

 a) Abdominal pain and vomiting due to stomach-cold: This herb can be ground alone into powder and stewed together with pig stomach or used with lesser galangal (Rhizoma Alpiniae Officinarum), long pepper (Fructus Piperis Longi), etc., for oral administration. Or, immerse some pepper in vinegar. Then take it out and dry under sunlight. Repeat the process 7 times. Grind the pepper into powder. Administer 3 g, twice daily.

 b) Diarrhea due to deficiency-cold in the spleen and stomach: This herb can be used together with evodia fruit, largehead atractylodes rhizome (Radix Atractylodis Macrocephalae), etc., and it can also be ground alone into powder for application onto the umbilical region.

  2. To warm up cold of wind-cold type: Prepare pepper and clove, each 3 g. Grind them as powder. Use 2 white bulbs from Chinese onion and pound, then mix with the prepared powder. Put a small mass onto the palm. Close both palms together and put the closed hands in between the two thighs until one sweats.

  3. To treat epilepsy: This herb can be ground together with long pepper (Fructus Piperis Longi) in an equal amount for oral administration, or the pepper is placed in turnip and dried in the air and ground into powder for oral administration in the manner described in the book 'Recipes for Emergency'. In addition, it can induce appetite and digestion if used as a seasoning.

  4. For dyspepsia (indigestion) in children: Grind 1 g white pepper as powder and 9 g glucose powder. Mix them together. Administer 0.3-0.8 g (<1 year old), 0.5-1.5 g (< 3 years old), three times daily, 1-3 days for a therapeutic course.

  5. For prolapse (sinking) of stomach: Clean a pig's or sheep's stomach (about 500 g) to which 1.5 g pepper is added. Simmer with slow fire until well done. Consume the stomach and soup.
 

  Pharmacological studies:Piper nigrum Linn

  Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli.: Growth inhibitory action of I (2.25 mmol/L) was nearly equal to that of 4-methylcatechol (2 mmol/L), while II was less effective (7.6 mmol/L) probably due to its unstable nature (Pradhan et al, 1999). The ripe fruit of P. nigrum showed anti-bacterial activity against penicillin G resistant strain of Staphylococcus aureus (Perez and Anesini, 1994).

  Anti-Fungal.: P. nigrum essential oil was most active against S. cerevisiae (Hector et al, 2004).

  Anti-Inflammatory: Piperine acted on early acute changes in inflammatory processes and chronic granulative changes. It also acted partially through stimulation of pituitary adrenal axis (Mujumdar et al, 1990).

  Anti-Neoplatic.: Simultaneous administration of piperine with tumour induction produced a significant reduction (95.2%) in tumour nodule formation induced by B16F-10 melanoma cells in C57BL/6 mice. Increased lung collagen hydroxyproline (22.37 ug/mg protein) in the metastasized lungs of the control animals compared to normal animals (0.95 ug/mg protein) was significantly reduced (2.59 ug/mg protein) in the piperine-treated animals. The high amount of uronic acid (355.83 ug/100 mg tissue) in the metastasized control animals was significantly reduced (65 ug/100 mg tissue) in the animals treated with piperine. Lung hexosamine content was also significantly reduced in the piperine-treated animals (0.98 mg/100 mg lyophilized tissue) compared to the untreated tumour-bearing animals (4.2 mg/100 mg lyophilized tissue). The elevated levels of serum sialic acid and serum gamma glutamyl transpeptidase activity in the untreated control animals were significantly reduced in the animals treated with piperine. Piperine-treated animals survived the experiment as well (90 days) (Pradeep and Kuttan, 2002).

  Antioxidant.: Significantly elevated levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), conjugated dienes (CD) and significantly lowered activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and reduced glutathione (GSH) in the liver, heart, kidney, intestine and aorta were observed in rats fed the high fat diet as compared to the control rats. Simultaneous supplementation with black pepper (0.25 g or 0.5 g/kg body weight) or piperine (0.02 g/kg body weight) lowered TBARS and CD levels and maintained SOD, CAT, GPx, GST, and GSH levels to near those of control rats (Vijayakumar et al, 2004).

  CYP3A4 Inhibitory.: EtOAc extract of white pepper showed strong inhibitory activity. On a continuous experiment, the fractions 2, 4 and 5 of white pepper EtOAc extract showed remarkable inhibitory activity (Cha, 2003). Dipiperamides A-C isolated from the white pepper (P. nigrum) inhibited cytochrome P 450 (CYP) 3A4 activity (Tsukamoto et al, 2002). Dipiperamides D and E showed potent CYP3A4 inhibition with IC50 values of 0.79 and 0.12 ¦ÌM respectively (Tsukamoto et al, 2002).

  Hypolipidaemic.: P. nigrum at 250 mg/kg body weight and 500 mg/kg body weight and its active principle, piperine at 20 mg/kg body weight administered to high fat fed rats for a period of 10 weeks resulted in a remarkable reduction in the levels of total cholesterol, free fatty acids, phospholipids and triglycerides in black pepper as well as in the piperine treated groups. The concentration of high density lipoprotein-cholesterol was elevated and the concentrations of low density lipoprotein-cholesterol and very low density lipoprotein-cholesterol in the plasma were reduced (Vijayakumar et al, 2002).

  Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition.: At concentration of 0.1 mg/mL, an extract of the seeds of P. nigrum showed 50-65% inhibitory activity on AChE (Ingkaninan et al, 2003).

  Anti-Mutagenic.: The wing Somatic Mutation And Recombination Test (SMART) in D. melanogaster was used to study the modulating action of P. nigrum in combination with methyl methanesulfonate and the promutagen agent ethyl carbamate. Results showed that black pepper was effective against the promutagen agent ethyl carbamate but not the alkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate. Pretreatment of 2-day-old larvae for 24 h followed by a treatment with EC and MMS was only effective in reducing mutations induced by EC (El Hamss et al, 2003).

  Anti-Thyroidal.: Daily oral administration of 2.50 mg/kg of piperine for 15 days lowered the serum levels of thyroxin (T (4)) and triiodothyronine (T (3)) as well as glucose concentrations with a simultaneous decrease in hepatic 5'D enzyme and glucose-6-phospatase (G-6-Pase) activity (Panda and Kar, 2003).

  Cell Growth Promoter.: P. nigrum fruit extract was found to possess growth stimulatory activity towards cultured melanocytes. At 0.1 mg/mL, the aqeous extract was observed to cause nearly 300% stimulation of the growth of a cultured mouse melanocyte line, melan-a, in 8 days. Piperine, the main alkaloid from P. nigrum fruit also significantly stimulated melan-a cell growth (Lin et al, 1999).

  Gastric Acid Secretion Stimulatory.: Increasing the dose of piperine from 20 mg/kg body weight to 142 mg/kg body weight produced significant dose dependent increases in gastric acid secretion in white albino rats when compared with control basal acid secretion. 20 mg/kg produced a 22.2% increase while the highest dose 142 mg/kg produced 334.6% increase in the gastric acid secretion. Piperine was however about 40 times less effective than histamine in increasing gastric acid secretion. The effect of piperine was significantly antagonized by cimetidine (1 mg/kg but not by atropine (1 mg/kg) (Ononiwu et al, 2002).

  Gastroprotective.: P. nigrum may protect the colon by decreasing the activity of b-glucuronidase and mucinase. Histopathological studies also showed lesser infiltration into the submucosa, fewer papillae and lesser changes in the cytoplasm of the cells in the colon in black pepper groups (Nalini et al, 1998).

  Hepatoprotective.: Piperine exerted a significant protection against tertiary-butyl hydroperoxide and CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity by reducing both in vitro and in vivo lipid peroxidation, enzymatic leakage of GPT and AP and by preventing the depletion of GSH and total thiols in the intoxicated mice. Piperine showed lower hepatoprotective potency than silymarin, a known hepatoprotective drug (Koul and Kapil, 1993). Swiss albino mice of either sex (eight weeks old) fed on a diet containing 0.5%, 1% and 2% black pepper (w/w) for 10 and 20 days revealed a significant and dose-dependent increase in glutathione S-transferase and acid-soluble sulfhydryl content in the experimental groups. Mice maintained on 0.5% black pepper diet for 10 days showed elevated levels of cytochrome b5 and cytochrome P-450. The level of malondialdehyde was lowered in the group fed on 2% black pepper diet for 20 days (Singh and Rao, 1993).

  Insecticidal: Pipertipine and pipercitine demonstrated toxicity against fourth-instar larvae of Aedes aegypti (Siddiqui et al, 2002). Pipnoohine and pipyahyine demonstrated toxicity at 35.0 and 30.0 ppm respectively against fourth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti L (Siddiqui et al, 2004). A new insecticidal amide piptigrine demonstrated toxicity at 15.0 ppm against fourth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti (Siddiqui BS et al, 2004). Biologically active constituents of P. nigrum fruits (isobutylamide alkaloids: pellitorine, guineensine, pipercide, and retrofractamide A) showed activity against third instar larvae of Culex pipiens pallens, Aedes aegypti and A. togoi (Park et al, 2002).

  Melanogenesis Stimulatory.: Methanolic extract from the leaves of P. nigrum showed significant stimulatory effect on melanogenesis in cultured murine B16 melanoma cells. (-)-cubebin and (-)-3,4-dimethoxy-3,4-desmethylenedioxycubebin showed a significant stimulatory activity of melanogenesis without any significant effects on cell proliferation (Matsuda et al, 2004).

  Tumor Stimulatory.: 50 male and 50 female Bufo regularis treated by force-feeding with an extract of black pepper at a dose level of 2 mg, 3 times a week for 5 months showed first tumours after 2 months. Liver tumours (hepatocellular carcinomas, lymphosarcomas and fibrosarcomas) were found in 12 males and 18 females. Metastatic deposits of hepatocellular carcinomas were registered in the spleen, kidney, fat body and ovary (el-Mofty et al, 1991). In mice, injection of safrole, tannic acid or methylcholanthrene (MCA) during the preweaning period induced tumours in different organs. Safrole and tannic acid were weak carcinogens when compared with MCA. Force feeding of d-limonene (one of the pepper terpenoids) for a period of time to the mice which were injected with any of the above 3 substances reduced their carcinogenic activity, while force feeding of piperine was ineffective (Wrba et al, 1992).


   Administration and Safety of Black Pepper:
 

  Dosages of Black Pepper:

 Black Pepper, 5 to 15 grains in powder. Piperine, 1 to 8 grains. 2-4 g.
 The root of the Pepper plant in India has been used by the natives as a cordial tonic and stimulant. Used either as an ingredient of boluses or powder or as seasonings in decoction for internal use. When grinded into powder for oral administration, a dosage of 0.5-1 g. is recommended. Use an adequate amount externally.
 B.P. dose of Pepper, 1 to 2 drachms.
 Oleoresin, U.S.P.: dose, 1/2 grain.

 A single dose ranges from 300-600 mg. Daily dose of 1500 mg#. Homeopathic recommendations for irritation of mucous membranes and galactorrhea are 5-10 drops, 1 tablet or 5-10 globules 1-3 times daily or from D4:1 mL injectable solution subcutaneously 2 times weekly (Gruenwald et al., 2000).
 For the treatment of hemorrhoids, 5-15 whole peppercorns are recommended to be taken (Duke et al., 2002).
 For congestion, cold, head cold, spice chicken soup with black pepper can be taken (Rinzler, 1990).
 The average daily dose of the berries is stated to be 1 to 3 g as a decoction, powder or pills, for the treatment of dyspepsia, vomiting, diarrhea and colic resulting from cold (Nguyen and Doan, 1989).

 Heliotropin is recommended medicinally as an antiseptic and antipyretic. It is obtained by the oxidation of piperic acid and is used in perfumery. From the time of Hippocrates Pepper has been used as a medicine and condiment.

  Safety of Black Pepper:

 Black pepper is not a commonly allergenic food, is not included in the list of 20 foods that most frequently contain pesticide residues, and is also not known to contain goitrogens, oxalates, or purines. For people used to have flaring up of inner fire, manifesting red eyes, sore throat or thirst, pepper is contraindicated

 Toxic in large amounts. Several children have died after eating a handful of black pepper (Fetrow and Avila, 2000). Non-toxic. P. nigrum, its oleoresin, or its active principle piperine fed to rats at doses 5 to 20 times normal human intake did not cause any adverse effect on: growth, feed efficiency ratio, and organ weights, red blood cell, white blood cell and differential counts, the levels of blood Hb, total serum proteins, albumin, globulin, sugar and cholesterol, the levels of serum aminotransferases and phosphatases, fat and N balance (Bhat and Chandrasekhara, 1986).
 

  Safety and Toxicity of Piperine.:

 Chemical Name:Piperidine,1-piperoyl,(E,E)- Molecular Formula:C17H19NO3. Molecular Weight:285.37

 Synonyms:(E,E)-1-Piperoyl-piperidine , 043501 (US EPA PC Code) , 05848 (CA DPR Chem Code) , 1-[5-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-1-oxo-2,4-pentadienyl]-, (E,E)- , 5848 (CA DPR Chem Code) , 94-62-2 (CAS Number) , 94622 (CAS Number) , N-[(E,E)-Piperoyl]piperidine , Piperidine, 1-?(2E,4E)-5-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-1-oxo-2,4-pentadienyl , Piperine;1,3-Benzodioxol-5-yl-1-oxo-2,4-pentadienyl-piperine;Piperidine,1-(5-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-1-oxo-2,4-pentadienyl)-,(E,E)-;Piperin;1-Piperoylpiperidine.

 CAS RN:94-62-2; U.S.EPA PC Code:043501; CA DPR Chem Code:5848 EINECS:202-348-0; FEMA:2909 melting Point:128~132 Deg C; Water Solubility: 40 mg/L(18 Deg C).

 Note:Piperine is the alkaloid responsible for the pungency of black pepper along with chavicine (an isomer of piperine). It has also been used in some forms of traditional medicine and as an insecticide.

  Acute Toxicity of Piperine.:

 LD50-Lethal dose,50 percent kill.Oral.Rodent-rat.514 mg/kg.Toxic Effects:Behavioral-excitement;Behavioral-changes in motor activity(specific assay);Lungs,Thorax,or Respiration-other changes.Reference:TOLED5 Toxicology Letters.(Elsevier Science Pub.B.V.,POB 211,1000 AE Amsterdam,Netherlands)V.1-1977-Volume(issue)/page/year:16,351,1983

 LD50-Lethal dose,50 percent kill.Intraperitoneal.Rodent-rat.34 mg/kg.Toxic Effects:Behavioral-excitement;Behavioral-changes in motor activity(specific assay);Lungs,Thorax,or Respiration-other changes.Reference:Same as Above

 LD50-Lethal dose,50 percent kill.Oral.Rodent-mouse.330 mg/kg.Toxic Effects:Lungs,Thorax,or Respiration-other changes.Reference:Same as Above

 LD50-Lethal dose,50 percent kill.Intraperitoneal.Rodent-mouse.43 mg/kg.Toxic Effects:Behavioral-excitement;Behavioral-changes in motor activity(specific assay);Lungs,Thorax,or Respiration-other changes.Reference:Same as Above

 LD50-Lethal dose,50 percent kill.Subcutaneous.Rodent-mouse.200 mg/kg.Toxic Effects:Lungs,Thorax,or Respiration-other changes.Reference:Same as Above

 LD50-Lethal dose,50 percent kill.Intravenous.Rodent-mouse.15100 ug/kg.Toxic Effects:Lungs,Thorax,or Respiration-other changes.Reference:Same as Above

 LD50-Lethal dose,50 percent kill.Intramuscular.Rodent-mouse.400 ug/kg.Toxic Effects:Lungs,Thorax,or Respiration-other changes.Reference:Same as Above

 LD50-Lethal dose,50 percent kill.Intraperitoneal.Rodent-hamster.105 mg/kg.Toxic Effects:Behavioral-excitement;Behavioral-changes in motor activity(specific assay);Lungs,Thorax,or Respiration-other changes.Reference:Same as Above

  Other Multiple Dose Toxicity Data.:Piperine

 TDLo-Lowest published toxic dose.Oral.Rodent-rat.3500 mg/kg/7D-I.Toxic Effects:Gastrointestinal-ulceration or bleeding from stomach;Kidney,Ureter;Bladder-other changes;Related to Chronic data-Death.Reference:TOLED5 Toxicology Letters.(Elsevier Science Pub.B.V.,POB 211,1000 AE Amsterdam,Netherlands)V.1-1977-Volume(issue)/page/year:16,351,1983

  Reproductive Data.:Piperine

 TDLo-Lowest published toxic dose.Oral.Rodent-rat.700 mg/kg.Sex/Duration:female 1~7 days after conception;Toxic Effects:Reproductive-Fertility-pre-implantation mortality (e.g.reduction in number of implants per female:total number of implants per corpora lutea).Reference:IJSIDW Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences.(Kalina,Santa Cruz(East),Bombay 400 029,India)V.40(2)-1978-Volume(issue)/page/year:40,113,1978.

 TDLo-Lowest published toxic dose.Oral.Rodent-mouse.150 mg/kg.Sex/Duration:female 15-20 days after conception;Toxic Effects:Reproductive-Effects on Embryo or Fetus-fetotoxicity(except death,e.g.,stunted fetus);Reproductive-Effects on Embryo or Fetus-fetal death.Reference:CCPTAY Contraception.(Geron-X,Inc.,POB 1108,Los Altos,CA 94022)V.1-1970-Volume(issue)/page/year:26,625,1982

 TDLo-Lowest published toxic dose.Oral.Rodent-mouse.400 mg/kg.Sex/Duration:female 2~5 day(s) after conception;Toxic Effects:Reproductive-fertility-pre-implantation mortality(e.g.reduction in number of implants per female:total number of implants per corpora lutea).Reference:Same as Above

 TDLo-Lowest published toxic dose.Oral.Rodent-mouse.125 mg/kg.Sex/Duration:female 8~12 day(s) after conception;Toxic Effects:Reproductive-Fertility-abortion.Reference:Same as Above

 TDLo-Lowest published toxic dose.Intraperitoneal.Rodent-mouse.100 mg/kg.Sex/Duration:female 2~5 day(s) after conception;Toxic Effects:Reproductive-fertility-pre-implantation mortality(e.g.reduction in number of implants per female:total number of implants per corpora lutea).Reference:Same as Above

 TDLo-Lowest published toxic dose.Intraperitoneal.Rodent-mouse.25 mg/kg.Sex/Duration:female 8~12 day(s) after conception;Toxic Effects:Reproductive-fertility-abortion.Reference:Same as Above

  Data in USA.:Piperine

 EPA TSCA Section 8(b) CHEMICAL INVENTORY.
 

  Safety and Toxicity of Piperitone.:

 Chemical Name:p-Menth-1-en-3-one Molecular Formula:C10H16O. Molecular Weight:152.26 Note:Primary Irritant.

 Synonyms:3-Carvomentheone;2-Cyclohexen-1-one,3-methyl-6-(1-methylethyl)-;1-Methyl-4-isopropyl-1-cyclohexen-3-one;Piperitone.

 CAS RN:89-81-6; RTECS:OT0257000; Beilstein RN:1907772 Reference:2-07-00-00075(Beilstein Handbook Reference)

  Skin/Eye Irritation test.:Piperitone

 Standard Draize Test.Administration onto the skin.Rodent-rabbit.500 mg/24 H.Reaction Severity:Moderate.Reference:FCTXAV Food and Cosmetics Toxicology.(London,UK)V.1-19,1963-81.For publisher information,see FCTOD7.Volume(issue)/page/year:16,863,1978

  Acute Toxicity:Piperitone

 LD50-Lethal dose,50 percent kill.Oral.Rodent-rat.2450 mg/kg.Details of toxic effects not reported other than lethal dose value.Reference:FCTXAV Food and Cosmetics Toxicology.(London,UK)V.1-19,1963-81.For publisher information,see FCTOD7.Volume(issue)/page/year:16,863,1978

 LD50-Lethal dose,50 percent kill.Subcutaneous.Rodent-mouse.1420 mg/kg.Toxic Effects:Behavioral-convulsions or effect on seizure threshold.Reference:Same as above.

  Data in USA.:Piperitone

 EPA TSCA Section 8(b) CHEMICAL INVENTORY.

  Possible Negative Effects of Black Pepper:

 According to at least one study, black pepper may cause an increase in parietal secretion (of hydrochloric acid~ the acid abovementioned as an aid to digestion) and pepsin secretion and a loss in potassium.
 Also, there is a chance of mucosal mircrobleeding and even gastric bleeding due black pepper (due, at least in part, to the above-stated secretions).

 Piperine may actually be carcinogenic (although some studies show that it is anti-carcinogenic¡­) and it might even have negative effects on sperm and interfere with reproductive processes.
 All in all, it seems that more likely than not, black pepper has positive health benefits. But before you start loading black pepper onto every single meal, realize that there are possible negatives, as well (which can practically be said about most any food!)

  Contraindications:

 Should not be used during pregnancy and lactation. Should not be given to children. Avoid in people who develop hypersensitivity to it (Skidmore-Roth, 2001).

  Interactions with other drugs:

 Avoid concurrent use with drugs metabolized by cytochrome P-450 (Skidmore-Roth, 2001).
 Co-administration of piperine, an alkaloid isolated from P. nigrum enhanced bioavailability of beta lactam antibiotics, amoxycillin trihydrate and cefotaxime sodium significantly in rats (Hiwale et al, 2002).
 Piperine (1-peperoyl piperidine), a major alkaloid isolated from P. nigrum potentiated pentobarbitone sleeping time in dose dependant manner, with peak effect at 30 min. Blood and brain pentobarbitone levels were higher in piperine treated animals (Mujumdar et al, 1990).
 Avoid concurrent use with anti-coagulant agents (Fetrow and Avila, 2000).
 


   Nutrients of black pepper:

  Scientific References:

  1.Black Pepper,Black Pepper Seed,Piper nigrum,Piper:the Kind of spices,one of the oldest and the most popular spice in the world.