Evening Primrose:What about its aroma essentials and natural gamma-linolenic acid...

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   Basic Botanical Info:

 Official Latin Name: Primula veris,Oenothera biennis
 Common name: Evening primrose,Sun Drop,Fever Plant, OEP
 Family: Onagraceae
 Synonyms: Onagra biennis
 Habitat: Dunes, roadsides, railway banks and waste places in Britain, often in sandy soils.

 Other Possible Synonyms:O. acutifolia[G] O. biennis ssp. caeciarum[B,P] O. biennis ssp. centralis[B,P] O. biennis var. pycnocarpa[B,P] O. biennis var. sulfurea[G] O. chicagoensis[G] O. muricata[B,G,P] O. purpurata[G] O. pycnocarpa[B,P] O. rubricaulis[G] O. suaveolens[G] Oenethera biennis[Sngs]

 Other Common Names:Common Evening Primrose [L], Common Eveningprimrose [P], Esekotu [E], Evening Primrose [H], Evening Primrose, Common Or Great [S], Evening-Primrose [MS], Great Evening Primrose [S], King's-cureall [B], Middelste Teunisbloem [D], Primrose,Evening [E],

 

 Basic Botanical Info:
 Physical Characteristics and Botanical Description:
 Phytochemicals and Constituents:
 Edible Uses and Properties:
 Evening Primrose Oil & Other GLAs:
 Herbalism medicinal uses:
 Suggestions and Administrations:
 How Evening Primrose Can Help:
 Evening Primrose Research Update:
 Evening Primrose History and Uses:Area of Adaptation,Cultivation and Processing


   Physical Characteristics and Botanical Description:

 The plants are very tall, often 4 to 5 feet or more in height. The stem is erect, stout, soft-hairy, reddish and branching forming a shrub. Leaves are alternate, rough-hairy, lanceolate, about 3 to 6 inches long and lemon-scented. The taproot is elongated, fibrous, yellow on the outside and whitish within. The flower spikes grow on auxiliary branches all along the stalk. They are about 2-1/2 inched in diameter, bright yellow and have four petals, a cross shaped stigma and a refluxed calyx (leaves under petals). The flowers open in the evening and close up during the day and are strongly scented with a delicious sweet perfume which attracts pollinating moths. The fruit is an oblong 1 in. capsule containing many tiny reddish seeds. Evening Primrose is in bloom from June to September. The entire plant is edible, gather edible roots and leaves in spring may be frozen, gather flowers, buds and young seed pods in bloom, gather entire plant in fall and dry for later herb use.

 Biennial growing to 1.2m. It is hardy to zone 4 and is not frost tender. It is in flower from June to September, and the seeds ripen from August to October. The scented flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Lepidoptera (Moths & Butterflies) and bees. The plant is self-fertile. It is noted for attracting wildlife. We rate it 3 out of 5 for usefulness.

 The plant prefers light (sandy) and medium (loamy) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought.
 

  Evening Primrose Species:

 Evening Primrose is a complex of four similar subspecies which occur in the southern half of the Great Plains. These are:

  Fremont's Evening Primrose (subsp. fremontii) : found in chalk badlands and rocky hillsides in northwest and north central Kansas and four counties in Nebraska. Formerly considered a separate species, it has smaller flowers and shorter wings on its seed pods than the other three.

  Hoary Evening Primrose (subsp. incana):  found from southwestern Kansas to the Oklahoma and Texas panhandles. Hoary Evening Primrose is densely covered with short hairs.

  Oklahoma Evening Primrose (subsp. oklahomensis) : found from the Gyp Hills of south central Kansas south into Texas. This subspecies is the only one that is completely hairless.

  Missouri Evening Primrose (subsp. macrocarpa) : widely distributed from central Texas through Oklahoma and eastern Kansas to southeast Nebraska. It is also found in limestone glades in the Ozark Mountain region of Missouri and Arkansas. This has the largest flowers and seed pods of any of the four.

 

   Phytochemicals and Constituents:

 Rich in an essential fatty acid called gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) that is vital for good health.
 GLA is a building block for various prostaglandins -hormone-like chemicals vital for a number of bodily systems.
 Actions: alterative, hormone regulator; source of essential fatty acids
 Application Using a chemical called hexane, oil is taken from the seeds and prepared as medicine. The preferred method is chemical free, and uses the 'cold pressed' extraction

 The seeds contain essential fatty acids, or EFAs, which are a necessary part of our diets. The EFAs in evening primrose seeds are linoleic acid (LA) and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). Because GLA is known to affect systems in the body that cause or reduce inflammation, it may have a major role in treating many illnesses, especially those that cause pain and inflammation.


   Edible Uses and Properties:
 

 Flowers; Leaves; Oil; Root; Seedpod.
 Root - cooked. Boiled and eaten like salsif. Fleshy, sweet and succulent. Wholesome and nutritious. A peppery taste. The taste somewhat resembles salsify or parsnips.
 Young shoots - raw or cooked. Mucilaginous, with a peppery flavour, they are best used sparingly. Another source suggests that the shoots should not be eaten.
 Flowers - sweet. Used in salads or as a garnish.
 Young seedpods - cooked. Steamed.

 The seed contains 28% of a drying oil. It is edible and a very good source of gamma-linolenic acid, an essential fatty acid that is not found in many plant sources and has numerous vital functions in the body. The seed, however, is very small and difficult to harvest, it has to be done by hand. Overall yields are low, making the oil very expensive to produce.

 Properties: Anti-aggregatory, anti-atherogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-proliferative, anti-thrombotic, vasodilator

 

  Disclaimer:

 Evening primrose has served as both food and medicine at previous times throughout history, often for upset stomach and respiratory infections. Native Americans ate the boiled, nutty-flavored root, and used leaf poultices from the plant for bruises and hemorrhoids. European settlers took the root back to England and Germany, where it was introduced as food and became known as German rampion because it grew as a crawling vine. The plant was also a Shaker medicine, sold commercially.

 Today, evening primrose seed oil (EPO) is used primarily to relieve the itchiness associated with certain skin conditions (such as eczema) and to ease breast tenderness from premenstrual syndrome (PMS) or other causes. It is considered to be potentially useful for the treatment of many conditions including:

  Indicated for: Acne, allergies, arteriosclerosis, asthma, cholesterol regulation, chronic headaches, diabetic nerve damage. dermatitis, eczema, hyperactivity in children, high cholesterol, impotence and female infertility, inflammation, lupus, multiple sclerosis, prostate health, psoriasis, obesity, rheumatoid arthritis, rosacea, scleroderma, treat, Alzheimer's-related memory deficiencies, upset stomach. Nourish nails, scalp, and hair. Prevent alcohol withdrawal symptoms. Relieve the discomforts of PMS (premenstrual syndrome), menstruation, endometriosis and fibrocystic breasts. Minimise premenstrual breast tenderness, irritable bowel flare-ups, and carbohydrate cravings, and help to control endometriosis-associated inflammation

  Allergies: particularly skin rash or hives

  Eczema: including redness and scaling in addition to itching

  PMS: including mood swings and bloating in addition to breast tenderness

  Arthritis: primarily rheumatoid

  Dry eyes: from, for example, Sjogren's syndrome (a condition with symptoms of dry eyes, dry mouth, and, often, arthritis)

  Peripheral Neuropathy: a nerve condition experienced as numbness, tingling, pain, burning, or lack of sensation in the feet and/or legs, from Diabetes

  Menopausal symptoms: Although EPO has gained some popularity for treating hot flashes, the research to date has not confirmed that GLA or EPO is beneficial for these symptoms. With that said, there are individual women who report improvement; therefore, it may be worthwhile to talk to your doctor about whether it is safe for you to try EPO or another form of GLA supplements to alleviate hot flashes.

  Weight loss: particularly if you have a family history of obesity

  Alcoholism: EPO may help lessen cravings for alcohol and prevent liver damage. More research is needed in this area.

  Anticholesterolemic; Astringent; Hypotensive; Miscellany; Sedative.

 The bark and the leaves are astringent and sedative. They have proved of use in the treatment of gastro-intestinal disorders of a functional origin, whooping cough and asthma. A syrup made from the flowers is also an effective treatment for whooping cough. The bark is stripped from the flowering stem and dried for later use, the leaves are also harvested and dried at this time.

 Evening primrose oil has become a well-known food supplement since the 1980's. Research suggests that the oil is potentially very valuable in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, pre-menstrual tension, hyperactivity etc. It is also taken internally in the treatment of eczema, acne, brittle nails, rheumatoid arthritis and alcohol-related liver damage. Regular consumption of the oil helps to reduce blood cholesterol levels and lower the blood pressure. The seed is a good source of gamma-linolenic acid, an unsaturated fatty acid which assists the production of hormone-like substances. This process is commonly blocked in the body, causing disorders that affect the uterine muscles, nervous system and metabolism.
 The poulticed root is applied to piles and bruises.
 A tea made from the roots is used in the treatment of obesity and bowel pains.

 

  Other Uses:

 Cosmetic; Dye.
 The oil from the seed is added to skin preparations and cosmetics. It is often combined with vitamin E to prevent oxidation.
 A yellow dye is obtained from the flowers.
 A finely ground powder made from the flowering stems is used cosmetically in face-masks to counteract reddened skins.

  Properties of Evening Primrose:

 Evening Primrose is edible and medicinal and has a long history of use as an alternative medicine . The leaves are cooked and eaten as greens and the roots are said to be sweet succulent and delicious when boiled like potatoes. Flowers are a sweet addition to salads or as a garnish and young seedpods are Steamed. This plant was a staple food for many Native American tribes. Formerly cultivated for its nutritious edible roots, it is being increasingly cultivated for the oil contained in its seeds which contains certain the essential gamma-linoleinc acid (GLA), a very valuable fatty acid that is not found in many plants and has numerous vital functions in the body. GLA is an essential fatty acid that the body does not manufacture. This fatty acid is known to help prevent hardening of the arteries, heart disease, eczema, cirrhosis, rheumatoid arthritis, menopause, PMS, multiple sclerosis, and high blood pressure. It has a positive effect on sex hormone response including the hormones estrogen and testosterone, aids in lowering cholesterol levels, and is important in treating cirrhosis of the liver. Research also demonstrates that primrose oil helps relieve pain and inflammation. The oil also has a positive effect on the uterine muscles, nervous system and metabolism. The bark and the leaves are astringent and sedative. They have proved of use in the treatment of gastro-intestinal disorders, whooping cough and asthma. A tea made from the roots is used in the treatment of obesity. A finely ground powder made from the flowering stems is used cosmetically in face-masks to counteract reddened skins.

 Primrose is a very effective herb, which combines well with other herbs in a variety of treatments. On its own, Primrose is a mild sedative most often used in treating nervous disorders, such as trembling, anxiety, and insomnia. It is also used as an anti-inflammatory in the treatment of arthritis.

 

   Evening Primrose Oil & Other GLAs:

 Evening Primrose Oil has been called the most sensational preventive discovery since vitamin C. It contains the pain relieving compound phenylalanine and is increasingly being used to treat chronic headaches. It is currently being studied all over the world as a treatment for aging problems, alcoholism, acne, heart disease, hyperactivity in children, multiple sclerosis, weight control, obesity, PMS and schizophrenia. It has so many preventive and therapeutic qualities that it has become a standard part of recommendations of many herbalist for maintaining youth and preventing disease.

 Evening Primrose Oil contains a high concentration of a fatty acid called GLA and it is this fatty acid that is largely responsible for the remarkable healing properties of the plant. In fact, Evening Primrose contains one of the highest concentrations known of this important substance and only a few other plants contain it at all. This makes Evening Primrose an important medicinal herb, and as studies continue, the list of benefits will likely become much longer. The gamma-linoleic acid, linoleic acid and other nutrients in this oil are essential for cell structure and improve the elasticity of the skin. These fatty acids also help to regulate hormones and improve nerve function aiding problems ranging from PMS to migraine headaches. The hormone balancing effect contributes to healthy breast tissue.

 Evening primrose, starflower (borage) and blackcurrant seed oils are rich sources of an essential fatty acid derivative, gammalinolenic acid (GLA). Although the MCA recently restricted GPs¡¯ ability to prescribe evening primrose oil due to a supposed lack of evidence of clinical efficacy, millions of people find GLA supplements beneficial, world wide, for maintaining general skin quality, relieving dry itchy skin and for helping to relieve premenstrual syndrome. It can take up to 3 months to notice a beneficial effect.

  What is GLA?

 GLA is an intermediary in the conversion of the essential fatty acid, linoleic acid, to series 1 and 2 prostaglandins and leukotrienes. These are involved in many metabolic reactions, helping to mediate inflammation, blood clotting, hormone balance and immune responses. The only people who should not take EPO are those who are allergic to it and those with a rare disorder known as temporal lobe epilepsy as it may make their condition worse (although it has been used diagnostically to differentiate between TLE and schizophrenia).

  GLA and Eczema:

 A common causes of wide spread itching and dry flaky skin in older people (xerosis) is a lack of dietary essential fatty acids. This may also worse symptoms in people with eczema. A review of nine studies reported up to 1989 found that evening primrose oil frequently reduced the symptoms of eczema after several months of use, with the greatest improvement seen in reducing the level of itching. A positive correlation was found between improvements in clinical score and a rise in fatty acid levels. In a double blind, cross-over study in which adults with eczema received either 2g, 4g or 6g EPO daily, and children took either 2g or 4g EPO daily, significant clinical improvement, especially at the higher intakes.

  GLA & Hormone Imbalances:

 Many women take EPO to help maintain healthy hormone balance, and some evidence suggests it is helpful in premenstrual syndrome. Although not all results are consistent, EPO is undoubtedly helpful for some women. For example, one study found supplements relieved bloating and mastalgia in 95% of women, irritability in 80%, low mood in 74%, swollen peripheries in 79% and anxiety in 53%. It is also taken for both cyclical and non-cyclical breast pain (mastalgia). The Cardiff Mastalgia Clinic reported that 92% of 324 patients with cyclical mastalgia and 64% of 90 women with non-cyclical mastalgia obtained a clinically useful response to therapy. Danazol was the most effective drug, with bromocriptine and evening primrose oil having equivalent efficacy. Adverse events were much less common with EPO than danazol or bromocriptine, however.

  GLA & Rheumatoid Arthritis:

 Essential fatty acids appear to offer benefits for people with rheumatoid arthritis. In one trial, 60% taking GLA were able to stop NSAID therapy completely, while another 25% were able to cut their NSAID dose in half. Interestingly, taking both evening primrose and fish oils together was only slightly more effective than taking EPO alone. Later studies using higher doses found GLA was able to reduce the number of joints that were tender or swollen.

  Relieve the discomforts of PMS, menstruation, endometriosis and fibrocystic breasts:

 By interfering with the production of inflammatory prostaglandins released during menstruation, the GLA in evening primrose oil can help to lessen menstrual cramps. It may also minimise premenstrual breast tenderness, irritable bowel flare-ups, and carbohydrate cravings, and help to control endometriosis-associated inflammation. Many PMS sufferers are found to have unusually low levels of GLA in their systems, which is why supplements might help so much. In women with fibrocystic breasts, the oil's essential fatty acids can minimise breast inflammation and promote the absorption of iodine, a mineral that can be present in abnormally low levels in women with this condition.

  Ease the joint pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis:

 Supplementation with evening primrose oil and other sources of GLA has been shown to lessen the joint pain and swelling of this crippling disease. A six-month study reported fewer signs of inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis sufferers taking capsules containing GLA than in those taking a placebo. In another trial, the number of tender joints and swollen joints dropped significantly with GLA but not with a placebo.

  Prevent diabetes-associated nerve damage:

 Research indicates that the GLA in evening primrose oil can help prevent, and in some cases even reverse, the nerve damage (neuropathy) so commonly seen with diabetes. In a year-long study, such symptoms as numbness, tingling, and loss of sensation in participants with mild diabetic neuropathy were less marked in those who took evening primrose oil than in those who took a placebo.

  Reduce the symptoms of eczema:

 In some cases, eczema develops when the body has problems converting dietary fats into GLA. Getting supplemental GLA from evening primrose oil may therefore be helpful.

 Some studies indicate that this oil can outperform a placebo in relieving eczema-related inflammation, as well as the itching, oozing, and flaking associated with this condition. By taking GLA, eczema sufferers may tolerate reduced doses of steroid creams and drugs, many of which cause unpleasant side effects.

  Help treat acne and rosacea:

 By working to dilute sebum, a thick oily substance that is oversecreted in some people with acne, the essential fatty acids in evening primrose oil may reduce the risk of pores becoming clogged and lesions developing. The oil's EFAs help treat rosacea by reducing inflammation, controlling cells' use of nutrients and by producing prostaglandins, which stimulate the contraction of blood vessels.

  Combat damage from multiple sclerosis:

 The abundant supply of essential fatty acids in evening primrose oil may be valuable in minimizing the inflammation associated with this progressive nerve disorder. The fatty acids may also contribute to healthy nerve development when taken over time.

  Treat Alzheimer's-related memory deficiencies:

 By boosting the transmission of nerve impulses, evening primrose oil may be valuable in treating this progressive brain disorder.

  Counter impotence and female infertility:

 By promoting blood flow, the GLA in evening primrose oil can help treat a primary cause of male impotence; compromised circulation leading to impaired penile blood flow. The oil is often taken with vitamin C and ginkgo biloba for this purpose. In addition, when the oil is taken long term, GLA can help prevent blood vessel narrowing, often a consequence of plaque buildup from high cholesterol. By improving uterine function, GLA may also help those who are unable to conceive.

  Nourish nails, scalp, and hair:

 The rich stores of essential fatty acids in evening primrose oil not only prevent nails from cracking but also help to keep them generally healthy. In addition, the essential fatty acids nourish the scalp, making the supplement potentially valuable in treating a variety of hair problems.

  Prevent alcohol withdrawal symptoms:

 GLA prompts the brain to produce a specific type of prostaglandin called prostaglandin E, which works to prevent withdrawal symptoms such as depression and seizures by indirectly protecting the liver and nervous system.

  Other Benefits:

 Various studies have suggested that GLA may be helpful in chronic fatigue and inflammatory bowel conditions such as ulcerative colitis. It was also suggested, just this year, that dietary supplementation with combined fish and plant derived fatty acids such as evening primrose oil is more effective in combating heart disease than taking fish oil supplements alone.

 Research in many countries has confirmed that, even in normal pregnancy, a mother¡¯s essential fatty acid status is marginal, with low levels that tend to fall lower with each successive pregnancy. Anecdotal evidence suggests that taking EPO during pregnancy may help to reduce the formation of stretch marks by maintaining the suppleness of skin and connective tissue cell membranes.


   Herbalism medicinal uses:
 

 Primrose, also known as Fairy Cup, Key Flower, Key of Heaven, Paigle, Crewel, Buckles, Arthritica, and Cowslip, is a common plant native to Great Britain, Europe, and parts of Asia, is not to be confused with Evening Primrose, which is different in action. The yellow flowers, the part most often used medicinally, are collected in early spring. They are still used to make wine in some of the more rural sections of Britain. Primrose is one of the most useful and versatile herbs used in alternative medicine. Primrose combines well with other herbs to treat a wide variety of ailments. It was mainly used to treat nervous conditions and headaches. For headaches it was used in combination with Wood Betony. Primrose contains flavonoids, including Quercetin, which are responsible for its anti-inflammatory properties, leading to its use in treating arthritic conditions. Primrose also contains saponin glycosides, the same constituents responsible for the beneficial actions of Panax Ginseng and Sea Cucumber. Primrose is famous for its sedative properties, and has been used in combination with Skullcap and Lady Slipper to treat anxiety, with Valerian Root to treat hysteria, and with Hops and Passion Flower to treat insomnia. Primrose is also a strong expectorant, and is useful in treating bronchitis and congestion, often in combination with Coltsfoot. Primrose is also a mild diuretic and laxative. The herb has a reputation for being effective in easing the symptoms of measles. Topically, Primrose has often been used to treat sunburn and was used in lotions to give the skin a healthy glow. Primrose is a great herb for the relief of mild nervousness and is known to reduce trembling.

  Summary Main uses Medical PMS and many other disorders:

 Were it not for an increasingly substantial body of scientific evidence backing the extraordinary therapeutic range of the oil extracted from the evening-primrose plant, the claims made on its behalf would seem mere quackery. Evening primrose oil can have startling effects in the treatment of the premenstrual syndrome (PMS).

 In 1981, at St Thomas's Hospital, London, 65 women with PMS were treated with oil of evening primrose. Of these 61% experienced complete relief, and 23% partial relief. One symptom, breast engorgement, was especially improved. 72% of the women reported feeling better.'

 In November 1982, an edition of the prestigious medical journal, the Lancet carried the results of the double blind crossover study on 99 patients with ectopic eczema. This showed that when high doses of evening primrose oil were taken about 43% of the patients in the trial experienced an improvement of their eczema.

 Studies of the effect of evening primrose oil on hyperactive children also indicate that this form of treatment is beneficial in calming the children down. About two-thirds of the children treated responded favourably.' Evening primrose oil, it appears, is also useful to counteract alcoholic poisoning. It is highly effective in preventing hangovers. A study in Inverness, Scotland, demonstrated that the oil will encourage a liver damaged by alcohol to regenerate. Other work indicates that oil of evening primrose can help withdrawal from alcohol and ease post-drinking depression.

 Another Scottish study has shown that evening primrose oil can help dry eyes and brittle nails. When combined with zinc the oil may be used to treat acne. More controversially, oil of evening primrose is also claimed to be of benefit to sufferers of multiple sclerosis. Its use for MS sufferers has been recommended by Professor Field who directed MS research at the UK Medical Research Council's Demyelinating Diseases Unit.

 Oil of evening primrose is also effective in guarding against coronary artery disease. Its active ingredient, gammalinoleic acid (GLA), is a powerful anti-blood-clotter. It has also been shown to reduce blood pressure in animals with high blood pressure. A New York hospital discovered that people more than ten percent above their ideal body weight lost weight when taking the oil. It is thought that this occurs because the GLA in evening primrose oil.stimu-lates brown-fat tissue.

 Perhaps the most remarkable study of all was completed at Glasgow Royal Infirmary in 1987 using evening primrose oil to treat patients with rheumatoid arthritis. 60% of patients taking the oil were able to stop their normal anti-arthritis drugs, and those taking fish oil in addition to evening primrose oil fared even better.

 There is scientific explanation for these extraordinary results. GLA is a precursor of a hormone-like substance called PGEI which has a wide range of beneficial effects in the body. The production of this substance in some people may be blocked. GLA has been found in oil extracted from blackcurrant seeds and borage seeds, both of which are now commercial sources of this substance. Research continues into treatments for rheumatoid arthritis, benign breast tumours, hyperactivity, schizophrenia, alcoholism, anorexia nervosa, Parkinson's disease, and certain forms of infertility.

 

   Suggestions and Administrations:

  Dosage As a supplement:

 Skin rash, mastalgia (breast pain), and premenstrual syndrome (PMS) are the three conditions for which dosages have been recommended. For skin rash, the recommended daily dosage is 6 to 8 g for adults and 2 to 4 g for children. For mastalgia, the recommended dosage is 3 to 4 g daily. For PMS, the recommended dosage is 3 g daily. EPO is available as capsules and as oil. Follow package directions

 If you are taking EPO for arthritis, dry and scaly skin, or most other conditions, a dosage of about 3 g per day is considered safe. Be sure to discuss this with your health care provider before taking EPO.

 The beneficial oils are concentrated in the seed of this plant, although the whole plant is edible. Although many people may have inadequate levels of GLA, the optimal intake for this nutrient remains unknown. Researchers often use 3,000~6,000 mg of EPO per day, which provides approximately 270¨C540 mg of GLA.


  How to Take It and How Much:

 You can take evening primrose in two forms: as seeds, or preferably, as standardized EPO supplements. Both contain GLA.

 Seeds. If you use the seeds of the evening primrose, grind them first with a mortar and pestle, which I do when making my cornbread. I suspect that unmashed seeds pass straight through the digestive system undigested, which means you may eliminate--quite literally--the health benefits.

 In the autumn, I'll often pass a patch of evening primroses on one of my nature walks through my Green Farmacy Garden. Since I don't have my mortar and pestle handy, I'll just shake the seeds from the plant into my palm and chew the unmashed seeds for a quick GLA fix, using my molars as mortars and pestles.

 Supplements. For most people, I recommend taking standardized evening primrose oil preparations with specified levels of GLA. You have to eat an awful lot of seeds to get the equivalent of a standardized supplement, and buying the herb in capsules, or in bottle form as an extract, at your health food store is a far more practical alternative. Suggested dosages are usually two 1,300-milligram capsules per day or up to four to eight grams of evening primrose oil daily.


  Combinations: Useful Combinations

 Taking evening primrose in conjunction with other herbs and foods can boost its healthful effects.

 Borage and black currant oils. borage and black currant, like evening primose, are rich in GLA and effective when taken in combination. While neither has been researched as thoroughly as evening primrose, studies suggest both may be effective in treating a variety of health complaints. In one study done at the University of California, San Francisco, borage oil lowered blood pressure in rats with hypertension. One caution: Unlike evening primrose oil, borage, the herb, is not safe for long-term use and should not be taken by pregnant or lactating women. The borage plant contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids.

 Pumpkin or sunflower seeds. Like evening primrose seeds, these contain tryptophan, which boosts serotonin levels in the brain and acts as an herbal mood enhancer. Try eating all three types together as a kind of happy trail mix. Since many people tend to eat more when they're feeling blue, it's good to know that nibbling on these seeds can also curb the appetite. It's a chain reaction: Tryptophan raises your serotonin levels, and they turn around and tell your satiety centers you're not hungry anymore.

 Saw palmetto. If you are concerned about prostate health, take saw palmetto before you go with EPO. Saw palmetto has earned a rightful place in Duke's Dozen because it shows remarkable promise for keeping the prostate in good working order.

 St. John's wort is another weapon, Both St. John's wort and evening primrose calm skin irritations. To treat dermatitis, insect bites, or scabies (an itch caused by parasites under the skin), steep flowering shoots of St. John's wort for a few days in enough EPO to cover them, then dab the infused oil onto affected areas. If you don't have access to the fresh herb, you can use a tincture of St. John's wort.

 The same herbal mixture may also provide relief for rheumatoid arthritis. Try smoothing it onto achy joints once a day.

 Stinging nettle. Along with evening primrose, stinging nettle is rich in quercetin, a bioflavonoid important to good health. People plagued by seasonal pollen allergies have learned that stinging nettle lets them to do away with antihistamines, drugs with significant toxicity and, often, undesirable side effects. Its efficacy in treating hay fever symptoms has been confirmed in one controlled clinical trial.

 
  Cautions:Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects

 Some nurseries sell evening primrose, but they are actually a small, showy hybrid of the perennial Missouri Primrose, and does not have the same medicinal uses.

  Brief: The American Herbal Products Association (AHPA) gives EPO a class 1 safety rating, which means it's safe with appropriate use. There have been rare reports of nausea and headaches from using it. Stomach pain and loose stools may be indications that your dosage is too high.

  Pregnancy Safety: Taking EPO while breastfeeding is believed to be safe. Breast milk actually contains both LA and GLA, and it may be a necessary part of a newborn's diet. Safety during pregnancy has not been determined

 Research on evening primrose looks clean. Like most food farmaceuticals, it's generally safe and causes far fewer side effects than most of its pharmaceutical alternatives. Still, keep an eye out for the following.

  Headaches: Some scientific findings have shown that headaches and even nausea can occur in some people who take EPO. I heard one report from a friend who said she got migraines if she took large dosages of evening primrose seed for her PMS. She's not sure, I'm not sure, and the jury's still out until definitive studies are done.

  Pharmaceutical alert: Schizophrenic patients on phenothiazines (Thorazine) may experience mild breathing difficulties or even increased risk of epilepsy, according to some research studies on such patients who took EPO.

  Pregnancy and lactation: EPO is generally given the go-ahead for breastfeeding mothers, since GLA is found in breast milk. However, it's probably smart to stay on the safe side if you are pregnant or lactating. Consult your physician.

 

   How Evening Primrose Can Help:

 Evening primrose can ease a variety of conditions, especially those resulting from an imbalance of essential fatty acids, inflammation of the skin, or an immune deficiency.

  Alcoholism. Studies suggest that EPO can help recovering alcoholics cope with withdrawal symptoms experienced during the first three weeks they stop drinking. Patients who take EPO may require fewer tranquilizers, and their livers may begin proper functioning more quickly. Research also shows, however, that the oil has no effect on preventing relapse.

  Arteriosclerosis. When cholesterol, lipid, and calcium deposits line the arteries, causing them to harden, arteriosclerosis is the dangerous result. When combined with a low-cholesterol diet, EPO shows promise in reducing the risk of arteriosclerosis, probably because it contains anticlotting compounds.

  Asthma.  This disease causes wheezing and tightness in the bronchial airways. It's often triggered by an allergic reaction. People with asthma can breathe easier thanks to evening primrose leaves. They contain quercetin, a good remedy for asthma and hay fever sufferers alike.

  Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH). Evening primrose works for men as well as women. When the prostate gland becomes inflamed and grows larger in aging men, it can cause numerous side effects including urinary difficulties and impotence. This condition, BPH, is also called noncancerous prostate enlargement. Research indicates that 50 percent of men have some degree of prostate enlargement by age 50. Further, at least 90 percent of all men 70 to 90 years old, by some estimates, must contend with BPH and its symptoms. Thirty zpercent of them undergo surgery. Doctors take matters of the prostate very seriously because prostate cancer is the second leading cause of death in men of all ages.

 I bet my own prostate that herbs work better than prescribed medications or surgery to control prostate growth. (I really did. See chapter 14.) Science is showing I might be right. EPO was reported in the Journal of Urology to help prevent prostate problems because it acts as a powerful 5-alpha-reductase type II inhibitor, which helps reduce enlarged prostates. For my part, I'll continue taking EPO and saw palmetto to maintain my good prostate health. I'll also keep on adding the gritty, ground-up evening primrose seeds to my cornbread recipe as I've done for the last 15 years, off and on.

  Depression. Tryptophan, a chemical compound found in evening primrose seed, may help to alleviate depression, perhaps as well as--and surely as safely as--the synthetic alternatives, including Prozac. Tryptophan is a precursor of brain serotonin, known for its mood-boosting effects.

 Evening primroses are happy flowers. Just cultivating them tends to reduce stress and lift your spirits, and spending time outdoors in the sunshine also does wonders for your mental well-being.

  Diabetes. People with diabetes may experience a condition called diabetic neuropathy, which can cause loss of feeling in their extremities. Naturopaths often prescribe evening primrose oil because it's rich in tryptophan, which helps stimulate the central nervous system. Much of EPO's tryptophan is lost during the oil-extraction process, though, so I'd recommend powdered seeds instead.

  Eczema. Skin-soothing evening primrose oil is approved in the United Kingdom to treat eczema, a skin condition that causes inflammation, redness, itchiness, burning, and scabbing. Studies on laboratory animals have shown that the seed oil can reduce swelling. Research shows the oil's GLA can be effective when applied to other skin irritations such as dermatitis. I wouldn't hesitate to put a little EPO on a bug bite or rash, either.

 For eczema, take the herb orally. borage and black currant are also chock-full of GLA. They're available in capsule form and should be taken as directed by the manufacturer's instructions.

  Endometriosis. When the membrane that lines the uterus becomes inflamed, low back and abdominal pain, constipation, and vaginal discharge may occur. The natural remedies guides I respect the most mention EPO as a treatment for this condition. One clinical trial shows that 90 percent of women treated with gamma-linolenic acid experienced improvement. While it's true that EPO's compounds promote good health in women, I still think of evening primrose oil more as an herbal medicine to address PMS than for treating endometriosis because there is much more research to support it.

  High blood pressure. When blood pressure is higher than normal, the heart's workload is increased. My colleague David Horrobin, Ph.D., editor of the British journal Medical Hypotheses, who has written extensively about the nutritional and medical importance of GLA, reports that it is effective in lowering both cholesterol and blood pressure.

  High cholesterol. Elevated blood cholesterol levels can increase your risk for heart disease. The GLA in evening primrose is reported to lower cholesterol levels. If I had high cholesterol, I'd eat a low-fat diet, quit smoking, and add EPO to my heart-healthy regimen.

  HIV. The life expectancy of HIV patients more than doubled when GLA and omega-3 fatty acids were included in their diets, according to studies done by researchers in Tanzania. Both GLA and omega-3 fatty acids are essential to maintaining cell structure membranes and making hormonelike substances known as eicosanoids, which help regulate blood pressure, blood clot formation, blood lipids, and the immune response to injury and infection. The body can make all other fatty acids except for these two, which must come from the diet. After reviewing the medical literature, I wholeheartedly believe that GLA can be a potent treatment for autoimmune disorders, including HIV. If I had it, I'd take EPO for its GLA and add fish oil or flax seed oil (the vegetarian option) to my diet. Both are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids. I'd take EPO for another autoimmune disorder, Sj?gren's syndrome, too.

  Multiple sclerosis. Multiple sclerosis, or MS, is a chronic autoimmune inflammatory disease that affects the central nervous system, causing nerve damage, vision problems, and muscle weakness. British herbalist David L. Hoffmann, Ph.D. author of The Herbal Handbook, recommends EPO for MS.

  PMS. Discomforts such as irritability, bloating, breast soreness, and depression occur before and during menstruation in many women. Clinical studies show that the GLA found in evening primrose oil contains essential fatty acids that seem to alleviate symptoms. A good friend of mine, Steven Morris, N.D., a naturopathic physician who practices near Seattle, Washington, prescribes evening primrose for PMS to good effect.

  Raynaud's disease. Raynaud's disease is a condition that causes a loss of blood flow to the fingers, toes, nose, or ears. The affected areas turn white from the lack of circulation, then blue and cold, and finally numb. When the attack subsides, the affected parts may turn red and may throb, tingle, or swell. Research on GLA suggests that it can help relieve these symptoms. In one study, researchers massaged EPO into the fingers of people with the disease, and about half improved. I can't give EPO all the credit, though. I suspect that the massage helped to stimulate circulation, too.

  Rheumatoid arthritis. Patients with this condition complain of chronic inflammation, pain, and tightness in the muscles or joints. When given evening primrose oil in one clinical trial, patients showed significant improvement and experienced less pain and stiffness in the morning. If I had arthritis, I'd take EPO capsules and apply the evening primrose oil topically, too. I wouldn't hesitate to take it daily, either, since there's not much to fear from a food "farmaceutical" like this.

 

   Evening Primrose Research Update:

  A study of evening primrose seed oil in atopic asthma.

 It has shown recently that Evening Primrose Oil (Efamol) produces a significant clinical improvement in atopic eczema. Efamol contains gamma-linolenic acid which is a precursor to PGE1 a more consistent bronchodilator than PGE2.

 We have conducted a double blind placebo controlled study in atopic asthmatics given Efamol for an eight week period looking at the control of asthma, including histamine challenge tests.

 We have found no effect on the asthma or challenge tests although Efamol produced an alteration in fatty acid profile.

 The patients showed an abnormal fatty acid profile. We speculate that such fatty acid abnormalities could be important in the aetiology of asthma.


   Evening Primrose History and Uses:Area of Adaptation,Cultivation and Processing:

 Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis L., Onagraceae) is an erect biennial from a taproot. Its leaves are alternate, lance-shaped and stalkless, the lower ones with red spots and forming a rosette. Flowers are yellow with 4 petals, in a spike at the ends of the stalks, and open widest at night or on dark, overcast days. Seeds are contained in long capsules. Plants germinate and make a taproot the first season, then flower the second season. They are self-fertilizing.

  History and Uses:

 Seeds of evening primrose have been used as a substitute for poppy seeds, while the roots and leaves have been used as a vegetable. Roots have also been used as a treatment for hemorrhoids, and the leaves as a poultice for skin eruptions. Evening primrose seed oil has a high gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) content, and is used today in treating eczema, migraines, arthritis, diabetes, benign breast disease, high blood pressure, PMS symptoms, and as a dietary supplement.

  Area of Adaptation:

 Evening primrose is a common species in disturbed areas and waste places, where the soil is sandy or gravelly and of low quality. High levels of nitrogen may result in lower GLA content. It prefers full sun or partial shade. When cultivated, a fertile loam with pH 5.5 - 8.0 and good drainage is best. Its natural distribution area includes the southern half of Canada (as far north as Gillam in MB) and the adjacent US, extending down into Texas and Florida.

  Cultivation and Processing:

 Evening primrose requires light for germination, so should be scattered on the soil surface and tamped lightly. Watering and freezing the seeds may help in germination by cracking the seed coats. Fields must be kept weed-free, as extractors want 98 percent purity. Fusilade II has been registered for control of grassy weeds, others must be mechanically weeded. Harvest when most of the capsules are mature, but before the seeds have started to shatter. It may be straight combined or swathed first. The oil is extracted from the crushed seed for use.


  Scientific References:

  1.Evening Primrose:What about its aroma essentials and natural gamma-linolenic acid...